Introduction to the Educational Program "Radioelectronics".

Abstract classes

I. Organizational moment

(Slide 1)

Good afternoon, dear guys! I am the head of the children's creative association "Radioelectronics" Center additional education Children Sobolev I.V.

Today in the lesson I want to offer you to make a small journey into the world of radio engineering and electronics.

II. Preparatory stage

Imagine ... Stone Age, then Bronze Age. The 19th century is a century of steam and electricity, but what about our time?

The age of an atom, electricity, communications, telecommunications, computerization ... Our time is not found in the age of the atom, the cosmic age, a century of communications and telecommunications ...

There was a little over a hundred years, as the radio was invented, and try modern man Leave without radio, television, computer.

(Slide 2)

But it all started with a simple. More than 2.5 thousand years ago, the Greeks described the phenomenon clear only to them. Attracting the lungs of the bodies of the amber wand in wool. They called this phenomenon with electricity (in Greek amber means "electron"). But forced people to work the electron just over 200 years ago. The new kind Energy has become so universal that it is now difficult to present our life without electricity.

III. Main part

(Slide 3)

- What is electricity? (pupils answer questions)

Electricity is the ability to transfer energy to huge distances. And very simple, convenient means of transport - not a pipe with a hot steam, not the composition of coal - only a copper or aluminum conductor is needed to make billions of workers to the place of work.

Electricity is the ability to share energy on any portions and distribute it between a huge number of consumers: I spent the wire to the apartment and use how much you need.

Electricity is the instantaneous transformation of the resulting energy into any form you need: Light, heat, mechanical movement. These are compact simple and bright light sources, compact simple electromechanical engines (imagine that gasoline motor is installed on the tape recorder) and the mass of the most important devices and processes that there would be no electricity at all (atomic particle accelerator, TV, computer). In short, electricity has enough advantages, so that it is advantageous to first turn other types of energy into electricity, and then as necessary to produce inverse transformation.

And who of you can tell me, what types of energy do you know to get electricity, or more correctly say electric current? (Students answer the question).

What substances or materials conduct electric current?

Display device ....(Metal. Plastic, water, man ....)

Thus, on the basis of rapidly developing radio engineers and the use of achievements of many sciences, electronics originated and very soon became necessary in almost all spheres of human activity.

The term "radio electronics" combines an extensive complex of science and technology related areas related to the problems of transmission, reception and transformation of information using electrical oscillations and electromagnetic waves.

(Slide 4)

Radioelectronics includes radio engineering, electronics, lighting and a number of new areas: semiconductor and microelectronics, acoustonic electronics, etc.

Displaying works made in T / O ....

what type do these devices do?

So: Radioelectronics is also a skillful control of the electron flow.

A lot of details have been created, with which you can see, hear and even sense energy at a distance.

Radio microphone ... (show in action) ...

And all this is the ability to control the flow of electrons.

What radio components do you know? (Pupils are responsible for the question).

Modern world saturated with electronic equipment and each of us must have at least a minimal set of knowledge, skills and skills of using complex household appliances. Today, electrical engineering is used everywhere: a pilot and a doctor, biochemist and economist, metallurgist can meet with it. And whatever a profession has not chosen a person, he meets with electronics everywhere. And everyone who is engaged in practical electronics, perfectly understands that this pleasant thing will be useful for a person of any profession.

(Slide 5)

In class in the creative association "Radioelectronics" various radio elements are studied, the principle of their action, use, including integral chips, which are the basis for the construction of modern radio electronic devices. Laboratory students are manufactured, electronic toys design, instruments learn to work with reference books and special technical literature, work with measuring devices.

Another point - radiotechnical design not only teaches, but also raises. It makes a person more intelligent, resourceful, inventive, collected, clear, neat. The habit comes to work quickly and carefully check made. By collecting electronic circuits, by selling them, looking for some kind of malfunction, you learn to think logically, arguing, independently produce new knowledge.

IV. Practical part

Now we will turn to the practical part of our classes.

Before you: "Electric flashlight"

What electrical parts does it consist of?

What elements are a simple electrical circuit.

(Slide 6)

Tok Source
- Consumer
- Key
- Wires (conductors)

(Slide 7), (slide 8), (slide 9), (slide 10)

Questions and display of elements.

(Slide 11)

Practice studying

1) Electrical Lantern Scheme

2) Collect a chain scheme containing one galvanic element and two incandescent lamps, each of which can be included separately from each other.

3) Collect the battery connection scheme, lamps and two switches (buttons) located so that you can turn on the lamp of two different seats.

4) a diagram with a double switch.

5) Switch and electric motor.

V. Summing up the lessons

Dear guys, our journey into the world of radio electronics came to the end!

What new have you learned today in class?

What radio elements and their designations did you find out?

What electrical schemes did we collect?

What is the role of electric current in our life?

Dear guys, thank you very much for work. I think you will leave today with a good mood.

Editorial Text: Sheremetyev A.N. (Angarsk State Technological Academy)

E-mail: [Email Protected]

1. Introduction

Electronics is a boo-developing industry of science and technology. It studies the physical basis and the practical application of various electronic devices. Physical electronics include electronic and ionic processes in gases and conductors. On the surface of the section between vacuum and gas, solid and liquid bodies. Technical electronics include the study of the electronic devices and their application. The area dedicated to the use of electronic devices in industry is called Industrial electronics.

The success of electronics is largely stimulated by the development of radio engineering. Electronics and radio engineering are so closely related that in the 50s they are combined and this field of technology is called Radioelectronics. Radioelectronics Today is a complex of areas of science and technology related to the problem of transmission, reception and transformation of information using EL. / Magnetic oscillations and waves in the radio and optical frequency range. Electronic devices serve as the main elements of radio engineering devices and determine the most important indicators radio equipment. On the other hand, many problems in radio engineering led to the invention of new and improvement of existing electronic devices. These devices are used in radio communications, television, when recording and playing sound, in radiolocation, in radio navigation, in a radiotele management, radio, and other fields of radio engineering.

Modern stage The development of technology is characterized by an increasing penetration of electronics in all areas of life and activity of people. According to American statistics, up to 80% of the volume of the entire industry occupies electronics. Achievements in the field of electronics contribute to the successful solution of the most complicated scientific and technical problems. Enhance the efficiency of scientific research, the creation of new types of machinery and equipment. Development effective technologies and control systems: obtaining material with unique properties, improving the processes of collecting and processing information. Having covered a wide range of scientific and technical and production problems, electronics relies on achievements in various fields of knowledge. At the same time, on the one hand, the electronics sets the tasks to other sciences and production, stimulating their further development, and on the other hand, arms them with high quality new technical means and research methods. The subjects of scientific research in electronics are:

1. Study of the laws of interaction of electrons and other charged particles with EL. / Magnetic fields.

2. Development of methods for creating electronic devices in which this interaction is used to convert energy for the purpose of transferring, processing and storing information, automation of production processes, creating energy devices, the creation of instrumentation equipment, research experiment and other purposes.

Exceptionally small inertia of the electron makes it possible to effectively use the interaction of electrons, both with macropulas inside the instrument and micropolis inside the atom, molecule and crystal lattice, to generate conversion and receiving email / magnetic oscillations with a frequency of up to 1000GHz. As well as infrared, visible, X-ray and gamma radiation. The consistent practical development of the email spectrum / magnetic oscillations is a characteristic feature of electronics development.

2. Fundament of electronics development

2.1 The foundation of electronics was laid by the works of physicists in the XVIII - XIX century. The world's first study of electric discharges in the air carried out academicians of Lomonosov and Richman in Russia and independently of them the American scientist Frankel. In 1743, Lomonosov in Ode "Evening reflections on God's greatness" outlined the idea of \u200b\u200bthe electrical nature of lightning and northern lights. Already in 1752, Frankel and Lomonosov showed the experience with the help of the "Thunder Machine", which thunder and lightning are powerful electrical discharges in the air. Lomonosov also found that electrical discharges are available in the air and in the absence of thunderstorms, because And in this case, the sparks could be removed from the Thunder Machine. The Thunder Machine was the Leiden Bank installed in the residential premises. One of the plates of which was connected by a wire with a metal comb or the edge fortified on the pole in the yard.

In 1753, during the experiments, a lightning was killed in the pole, Professor Richman, who conducted research. Lomonosov created a general theory of thunderstorm phenomena, which is a pre-action of modern thunderstorm theory. Lomonosov also examined the glow of discharged air under the action of the machine with friction.

In 1802, Professor of Physics of the St. Petersburg Medical and Surgical Academy - Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov for the first time, several years before the English physics of Davy, discovered and described the phenomenon of an electric arc in the air between two coal electrodes. In addition to this fundamental discovery, Petrov has a description of a variety of types of luminosity of discharged air when the electric current passes through it. Petrov describes his opening as follows: " If on the glass tile or bench with glass legs 2 or 3 wood coal will be laid, and if metal isolated directions, reported with both poles of a huge battery, bring it to one to another one to the distance from one to three lines, is between them very bright white color The light or flame, from which these coals rather or slowly flared up, and from which the dark peace is lit to be."The work of Petrov was interpreted only in Russian, foreign scientists they were not available. In Russia, the significance of the work was not understood and they were forgotten. Therefore, the opening of the arc discharge was attributed to the English physics of Davi.

The beginning of the study of the absorption and radiation spectra of various bodies led the German plucker scientist to the creation of heyler tubes. In 1857, the Plucker found that the spectrum of the geisler tube stretched into the capillary and placed in front of the spectroscope slit uniquely characterizes the nature of the gas enclosed in it and opened the first three lines of the so-called Balmer spectral series of hydrogen. The student of Plucker Gittorph studied the smaller discharge and in 1869 published a series of studies of EL. / Conductivity of gases. He, together with the Plukker, owns the first studies of the cathode rays, which continued the Englishman Cruks.

A significant shift in understanding the phenomenon of the gas discharge was caused by the works of the English scientist Thomson, which opened the existence of electrons and ions. Thomson created a Cavendish laboratory from where a number of physicists of explorers of electric charges of gases (Toundsen, Aston, Rutherford, Circle, Richardson) came out. In the future, this school made a major contribution to the development of electronics. From Russian physicists above the study of arc and its practical application for lighting, worked: apples (1847-1894), Chikov (1845-1898), Slavs (welding, molding of metals by Arc), Bernardos (applying arcs for lighting). Lachinov and Mitkevich were engaged in a somewhat later study. In 1905, Mitkevich established the nature of the processes at the arc discharge cathode. Not an independent discharge of the air was engaged in soles (1881-1891). During his classical photo effects study at the Moscow University of Tabletov for the experiment, built an "air element" (VE) with two electrodes in the air, giving an electric current without inclusion in the chain of extraneous EMF only with external cathode lighting. Tables called this effect by actinoelectric. He studied this effect as at elevated atmospheric pressureand under reduced. Specially constructed forged apparatus gave the ability to create reduced pressure up to 0.002 mm. RT. pillar. Under these conditions, the actinoelectric effect was not only a photocurrent, but also a photocurrent reinforced with an independent gas discharge. Its an article about the opening of this effect of the Councils finished this: " No matter how to finally formulate an explanation of the actinoelectric discharges, it is impossible not to recognize some peculiar analogies between these phenomena and long-known, but still low-touch, discharges of geisler and crook tubes. Wanting at my first experiments to navigate among the phenomena of the phenomena represented by my mesh capacitor, I unwittingly spoke to myself that in front of me a heyler tube that could act and without an air discharge with an outsider. There and here the phenomena are tightly connected with light phenomena. There, and here the cathode plays a special role and appears to be sprayed. The study of actinoelectric discharges promises to shed light on the processes of electricity distribution in gases at all ..."These words of the Counterparty are fully met.

In 1905, Einstein gave an interpretation of a photoeffect associated with light quanta and established the law called him name. Thus, the photo effect, an open centenary characterizes the following laws:

1) The case of a metering is the amount of electrons imitated by the time in a unit proportionally, with other things being equal, the intensity of the incident falling on the surface of the cathode of light. Equal conditions here need to be understood as illumination of the surface of the cathode by the monocramatic light of the same wavelength. Or the light of the same spectral composition.

The maximum speed of electrons leaving the surface of the cathode with an external photoeffect is determined by the ratio:

- The magnitude of the quantum of the energy of monochromatic radiation falling on the surface of the cathode.

- The work of the electron outlet of the metal.

3) the speed of the photoelectrons leaving the surface of the cathodes does not depend on the intensity of the incident on the radiation cathode.

For the first time discovered the external photoeff of the German physicist Hertz (1887). Experimenting with an open electromagnetic field. Hertz noted that in the spark gap of the receiving contour of the spark, which detecting the presence of electrical oscillations in the circuit, surrounds with other conditions it is easier if the spark discharge falls in the generator in the generator.

In 1881, Edison first discovered the phenomenon of thermoelectronic emission. Conducting various experiments with coal lamps Incandescent, he built a lamp containing in vacuo, except for the coal thread, another metal plate and on which the conductor R. If you connect the wire through a galvanometer with a positive end of the thread, then through the galvanometer there is a current, if you connect with negative, the current is not detected. This phenomenon was called Edison's effect. The phenomenon of emitting electrons with hot metal and other bodies in vacuo or in Gaza was called thermoelectronic emission.

3. Stages of electronics development

Stage 1. The first stage includes the invention in 1809 by the Russian engineer of Ladyan incandescent lamps.

Opening in 1874 by the German scientist brown rectifier effect in contact metal semiconductor. The use of this effect by the Russian inventor of Popov to detect the radio signal made it possible to create a first radio receiver. The radio was considered on May 7, 1895. When Popov made a report and demonstration at a meeting of the physical branch of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society in St. Petersburg. And on March 24, 1896, Popov handed over the first radio communication at a distance of 350m. The success of electronics during this period of its development contributed to the development of radio telegraphy. At the same time, the scientific foundations of radio engineering were developed to simplify the radio receiver's device and increase its sensitivity. IN different countriesah conducted the development and research of various types of simple and reliable detectors of high-frequency oscillations - detectors.

With a high vacuum, gas discharge between the electrodes is such that the length of the free mileage of the electrons significantly exceeds the distance between the electrodes, therefore, with a positive, relative to the cathode of the voltage on the anode V A electrons move to the anode, causing the current I A in the anode chain. With a negative voltage of the Anode V A, the emitable electrons return to the cathode and the current in the anode chain is zero. Thus, the electrovacuum diode has one-sided conductivity, which is used when straightening AC. In 1907, the American engineer DE Forest found that by placing a cathode (K) and anode (a) metal grid (c) and supplying voltage V c can be controlled by anodic current I A almost without inertia and with low energy consideration. Thus, the first electronic amplifier lamp appeared - triode (Fig. 3). Its properties as an instrument to enhance and generate high-frequency fluctuations led to rapid development of radio communications. If the gas density of the filling cylinder is so high that the length of the free emission of the electrons turns out to be less than the distance between the electrodes, the electronic stream, passing through the interelectrode distance interacts with the gas medium as a result of which the properties of the medium change dramatically. The gas medium is ionized and enters the plasma state characterized by high electrical conductivity. This plasma property was used by the American scientist Helle in the Gazotron developed in 1905 - a powerful rectifier diode with gas filled with gas. The invention of Gazotron laid the development of gas-discharge electrical compound instruments. In different countries, the production of electronic lamps began to develop rapidly. This development is particularly stimulated by the military value of radio communications. Therefore, 1913 - 1919 - the period of sharp development of electronic technology. In 1913, the German engineer Maisner developed a diagram of a lamp regenerative receiver and with the help of the trigger received unlucky harmonic oscillations. New electronic generators allowed replacing spark and arc radio stations on lamps, which practically solved the problem of radiotelephony. From that time, the radio engineering becomes a lamp. In Russia, the first radiolm views were manufactured in 1914 in St. Petersburg by a consultant of the Russian Society of Wireless Telegraph Nikolai Dmitrievich Papleksi, the future academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Papailci graduated from Strasbourg University, where he worked under the leadership of Brown. The first radiolaxi radiolms due to the lack of perfect pumping were not vacuum, but gas-filled (mercury). From 1914 - 1916. Papalexi conducted radio-telephone experiences. He worked in the field of radio communications with submarines. He led the development of the first samples of domestic radiolmp. From 1923 - 1935 Together with Mandelstam, he led the scientific department of the Central Radio Babe in Leningrad. From 1935 he worked as Chairman of the Scientific Council on Radiophysics and Radio Engineering at the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

The first electrovacuum receiving and amplifying radiologues were made by Bonch - Broyevich. He was born in Orel (1888). In 1909 he graduated from the Engineering School in St. Petersburg. In 1914 he graduated from an officer electrical school. From 1916 to 1918 he was engaged in creating electronic lamps and organized their production. In 1918, he headed the Nizhny Novgorod radioabilities, uniting the best radio specificists of that time (spikes, pistolkors, sheell, elk). In March 1919, serial production of the RP-1 electrovacuum lamp began in the Nizhny Novgorod Radio Babe. In 1920, Bonch-Broyevich finished the development of the world's first generator lamps with a copper anode and water-cooled, with a capacity of up to 1 kW. The prominent German scientists, having familiarized with the achievements of the Nizhny Novgorod laboratory recognized Russia's priority in creating powerful generator lamps. Great work on the creation of electrovacuum devices turned in Petrograd. Chernyshev, Bogoslovsky, Vekhinsky, Obolensky, Shaposhnikov, Zusmansky, Alexandrov worked here. The invention of the heated cathode was important for the development of electrovacuum techniques. In 1922, an electrovacuum plant was created in Petrograd, which merged with Svetlana's electrolympoam plant. In the research laboratory of this plant, Vecshinsky conducted multilateral research in the field of physics and technology of electronic devices (according to the emission properties of cathodes, metal gas and glass and other).

The transition from long waves to short and middle, and the invention of superheterodine and the development of broadcasting demanded the development of more advanced lamps than triodes. Developed in 1924 and improved in 1926 by American Hell shielded lamp with two grids (Tetrod), and the electrovacuum lamp with three grids (pentodod), which had proposed as 1930), solved the task of increasing the working frequency of broadcasting. Pentods have become the most common radiolampamia. The development of special radio reception caused in 1934-1935 the emergence of new types of multi-speed frequency conversion radiolmps. A variety of combined radiologues also appeared, the use of which made it possible to significantly reduce the number of radiolmps in the receiver. Especially clearly the relationship between the electrovacuum and radio engineering was manifested in the period when radio engineering moved to the development and use of the VHF range (ultra-screws - meter, decimeter, centimeter and millimeter ranges). For this purpose, firstly known radiolm views were significantly improved. Secondly, electrovacuum devices with new principles of electron flow control were developed. This includes multi-meter magnetrons (1938), clusterone (1942g), reverse wave lamps (1953g). Such devices could generate and enhance the fluctuations of very high frequencies, including a millimeter wave range. These achievements of electrovacuum techniques led to the development of such industries as radio navigation, radiolocation, impulse multichannel communications.

The Soviet Radio Physics of the Rozhsky in 1932 proposed to create devices with modulation of electron flow by speed. In his idea, Arsenyev and Hale in 1939 were built the first devices for amplifying and generating oscillations of microwaves (over high frequencies). Great importance For the technique of decimeter waves, Devyatkov, Khokhlov, Gurevich, who in 1938 - 1941, constructed triododes with flat disk electrodes. For the same principle in Germany, metal-ceramic lamps were made, and in the US, beacon lamps.

Created in 1943. The Lamps of the Running Wave (LBB) lamps ensured the further development of microwave radio relay communication systems. To generate powerful microwave oscillations in 1921, Magnetron was proposed, his author Helle. According to Magnetron, the studies were conducted by Russian scientists - Slutsky, Grekova, Steinberg, Kalinin, Zusmanovsky, Bryud, in Japan - Yagi, Okaba. Modern magnetonia originated in 1936 - 1937, when, in the idea of \u200b\u200bBonch-Bruyevich, his staff, Alekseev and Molaos, developed multi-mezzanine magnetones.

In 1934, employees of the Central Radio Babe, Korovin and Rumyantsev conducted the first experiment on the use of radiolocation and determining the flying aircraft. In 1935 theoretical basis Radio collations were developed in the Leningrad Physico-Technical Institute Kobzarev. Simultaneously with the development of vacuum electrical appliances, at the second stage of the development of electronics, gas-discharge devices were created and improved.

In 1918 as a result research work Dr. Schreter The German firm Pintsh released the first industrial lamps of the glow discharge at 220 V. Since 1921, the Dutch Firm Philips has released the first neon lamps of the glowing discharge at 110 V. In the US, the first miniature neon lamps appeared in 1929.

In 1930, Noolez first published a description of the neon lamp of the glow discharge, in which the occurrence of the discharge between the anode and the cathode is caused by the third electrode. The first tirartainment of the glow discharge (Fig. 4), which was widely used, designed in 1936 the inventor of Belle Phone. At that time, he was named "Lamp - 313a". In the same year, another inventor - Vitley, proposed his design of Tiratron. Where, using current (i c) of the control electrode (C), the necessary initial level of the concentration of electrons and ions is created, in the vacuum gap anode - cathode. This level ensures the appearance of the glow discharge. The same effect is used in the decatron proposed by Erickson. Decatron is a tantholic switch (Fig. 5), consisting of one anode and ten cathodes (K1, K2, K3 ..., K10) and located between cathodes of subframes ( 1, 2) . The charge is transferred from one cathode to another by consistent feeding pairs of control pulses to subcutters. Suppose that there is a smoldering charge between the cathode K1 and the anode A, if the potential of the subcatch 1 It will be lower than the Q1 charge turns onto the subcast 1 . Feeding a negative impulse on a subcast 1 and next to 2 , post charge K1 and K2.

The first Soviet tirartainment of the glowing discharge was developed in 1940 in the Laboratory of the Svetlana plant. In its parameters, he was close to the parameters of the company "RCA". The glow accompanying gas discharge began to be used in the iconic gas discharge indicators: when the voltage is applied to a particular cathode (sign), a luminous image occurs.

In the 1930s, the basics of radio television were laid. The first proposals on special transmitting tubes did independently from each other Konstantinov and Kataev. Similar tubes called iconoscopes built in the US Vladimir Konstantinovich Zvorykin. In 1912 he graduated from St. Petersburg Economic Institute. In 1914, College "De France" in Paris. In 1917, emigrated to the United States. In 1920 he entered the company "Westingau Electric". In 1929, he headed the laboratory of American radio corporation "Camdym and Prorton". In 1931, Zvorykin created the first iconoscope - a transmitting tube, which made it possible to develop electronic television systems. In 1933, Shmakov and Timofeev offered more sensitive transmission tubes - a superioscope. Allowed television broadcasts without strong artificial lighting. Schmakov was born in 1885, in 1912 she graduated from Moscow State University, he worked (1924-30) in MWU, (1930-32) worked in MEI, in 1933 invented a superconoscope, (1935 - 37) headed the laboratory In the All-Union Nii of Television in Leningrad. Timofeev was born in 1902, in 1925 he graduated from Moscow State University, (1925-28) worked in MWU, in 1933, together with Shmakov invented an iconoscope. The remaining works belonged to the field: photo effect, secondary electronic emission, discharges in gases, electronic optics. Developed the designs of electronic multipliers, electronic optical converters.

In 1939, the Soviet scientist BRUSHE proposed the idea of \u200b\u200bcreating an even more sensitive transmitting tube named superior. By 1930, the first experiments with very simple transmitting devices received the name Vicon. The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating Viconon was nominated by Chernyshev in 1925. The first practical samples of Vickers appeared in the USA in 1946

The iconoscope (Fig. 7) is an electronolic tube in which the light energy is converted to electric video pulses using an electron beam and photosensitive mosaic. The iconoscope has a glass cylinder (4) in which the photosensitive mosaic is located (6), consisting of several millions of silver grains (AG) coated with cesium (CS). Mosaic is applied on a thin mica plate with a size of 100x100 mm. On the reverse side of the mica plate is a signal plate (5), which is a miniature photocathode that radiates free electrons under the action of light. Each grain of photosensitive mosaic together with a signal plate can be considered as an elementary capacitor with a mica dielectric. When lighting a mosaic through the lens (2), the light reflected from the transmitted image (1), the mosaic turns into a system of capacitors of charge which is proportional to the illumination of the corresponding grains. Free electrons emitated by the photocathode (5) are collected by the collector (3) to which the voltage positive to the signal plate is falling. The collector serves the conductive layer applied to the inner wall of the iconoscope. The electronic spotlight (8) creates a beam, which with the help of a deflecting system (7) line up all the grains of mosaic and removes a positive charge with them. The free electrons of the electron beam occupy the place of electrons flying out of the mosaic as a result of a photoelectron emission. The discharge of microscopic capacitors causes the passage through the load resistor (R N) and the cathode chain (K) of the electronic spotlight. The voltage drop on the resistor (R n) is proportional to the illumination of the elementary sections of the mosaic with which at the moment the electronic ray removes a positive charge. The disadvantage of the iconoscope is small efficiency and low sensitivity. To work such an iconoscope, a very large illumination of the transmitted object is required.

On (Fig. 8) is given schematic scheme Vicon. A translucent gold layer performing the role of a signal plate (9) is applied to the inner end surface of the cylinder Viconon. A photoresist (8) is applied to this layer - this is crystalline selenium or three-ring antimony. The free electrons emitted by the cathode (K) are formed into an electron beam using a control electrode (11) and two accelerating anodes (5 and 6). The focus of the beam is carried out using a focusing coil (3). The grid (7) located in front of the photoresist creates a homogeneous braking field, which prevents the formation of an ion spot and provides a normal drop in the electron beam. Deviation coils (4) are powered by sawturine and force the electronic area to line up the working part of the photoresist (8). Corrective (1) and centering (2) coils make it possible to move the electron beam in 2 mutually perpendicular areas. The electrical conductivity of the photoresist depends on its illumination. The electronic beam, falling on the target surface, knocks out secondary electrons, the number of which is greater than primary, because the target surface facing the electronic spotlight is charged positively to the potential close to the potential of the accelerating anode (5). The potentials of the other side of the target addressed to the transmitted image are close to the potential of the signal plate. Each target element can be considered as a condenser with losses, electrical conductivity, which depends on the lighting intensity. Changing the potential of the target elements by an electron beam and is a video signal removed from the load resistor R n. The voltage removed from the resistor R n is proportional to the illumination of that element on which the electronic beam is currently located.

4. The third period of electronics development

4.1 The invention of the point transistor.

The third period of development of electronics is the period of creating and implementing discrete semiconductor devices, which began with the invention of the point transistor. In 1946, a group led by William Shockley, conducted studies of semiconductor properties on silicon (SC) and Germany (GE) [Literature: J. Mc Phone, M. Key Experiments, was created at the Belle Phone Lab. G.] The Group conducted both theoretical and experimental studies of physical processes on the border of the section of two semiconductors with various types electrical conductivity. As a result, it was invented: three-electro semiconductor devices - transistors. Depending on the number of charge carriers, transistors were divided into:

- Unipolar (field), where unipolar carriers were used.

- Bipolar, where divertolar carriers (electrons and holes) were used.

The ideas of creating field transistors appeared earlier than bipolar, but it was not possible to practically realize these ideas. Success was achieved on December 23, 1947 by the employees of the Laboratory "Bell Phone" - Bardin and Brattene, under the leadership of Shocley. Bardin and Brattein as a result of numerous options received a working semiconductor device. Information about this invention appeared in the magazine "The Physical Review" in July 1948. This is how the authors themselves wrote about this invention: " The description of the three-element electronic deviceusing the newly open principle that is based on the use of a semiconductor as the main element. The device can be used as an amplifier, a generator for other purposes for which vacuum electronic lamps are usually applied. The device consists of three electrodes placed in Germany block, as shown onFig. 4.1.

Two of these electrodes called, emitter(Er) and collector(TO), Are rectifiers with point contact and are located in close proximity to each other on the upper surface. The third electrode, large area and small radius, is applied to the base - base(B). UsedGE. n.-Type. Point contacts were made from both tungsten and phosphorous bronze. Each point contact separately together with the base electrode forms a high reverse resistance rectifier. The current, the direction of which in relation to the entire volume of the crystal is direct, is created by holes i.e. carriers having the opposite sign in relation to media usually present in excess inside the volumeGE.. When two point contacts are located very close to each other and constant voltage is applied to them, contacts have a mutual influence on each other. Due to this influence it is possible to use this device to enhance the AC signal. Electrical chain with which you can achieve this is shown onFig. 4.1. A small positive voltage is applied to the issuer, which causes a current of several milliampers through the surface. The reverse voltage is applied to the collector, large enough to the collector current is equal to or more emitter current(I k ≥ i e). The voltage sign on the collector is that it attracts holes running from the emitter. As a result, most of the current emitter passes through the collector. The collector creates a large resistance for electrons current in the semiconductor, and almost does not interfere with the thread of holes into the point. If the emitter current is modulated by voltage signal, this leads to the appropriate change in the collector current. A large amount of output voltage ratio was obtained to the input, the same order as the ratio of impedances, rectifting point contact in the opposite and direct direction. Thus, an appropriate gain of the output power occurs. Received the gain in power 100 times. Such devices worked as amplifiers at frequencies up to 10 MHz (Meghertz). "

The device invented by bardin and broth was called a point transistor of type A and was a design presented in Fig. 4.2 where (1) Crystal Germany, (2) Output of the Emitter, (3) Base output. The signal strengthening was carried out due to a large difference in the values \u200b\u200bof resistance, low-level input and high-alone output. Therefore, the creators of the new device called it abbreviated - the transistor (in the lane. From the English - "Resistance Converter").

4.2 The invention of the plane bipolar transistor.

At the same time, in the period April 1947 - January 1948, Shockley published the theory of plane bipolar transistors. Having considered semiconductor rectifying devices from a semiconductor crystals having a transition between P- and N-type regions. (Fig. 4.3)

Such a device called a plane semiconductor rectifier has a low resistance when the P-region is positive in relation to the N-region. The characteristics of the plane rectifier can be accurately determined theoretically. Compared to the point, the plane rectifier allows greater load because Contact area can be made quite large. On the other hand, the shunting container grows with increasing area. Next, Shocley considered the theory of the plane transistor from the semiconductor crystal containing two p-N Transition (Fig. 4.4) Positive P-region is an emitter, negative R-region by the collector, the N-region is a database. Thus, instead of metal point contacts, two P-N areas are used. In the point transistor, two metal point contacts needed to be very close to each other, and in a plane transistor both transitions should be very close to each other. The base area is very thin - less than 25 microns. Plane transistors have a number of benefits before point: they are more accessible to theoretical analysis, have a lower noise level, provide greater power. For the normal operation of the transistor, as an amplifier, it is necessary that the emitter is sent directly, and the reverse displacement to the collector is in relation to the database. For the P-N - P of the transistor, the condition corresponds to a positive emitter and a negative collector. For n-p-n - reverse polarity, i.e. Negative emitter and positive collector.

The invention of transistors was a significant milestone in the history of electronics development and therefore its authors John Bardin, Walter Brattein and William Shokley were honored by the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1956

4.3 Prerequisites for transistors.

The appearance of transistors is the result of the painstaking work of dozens of outstanding scientists and hundreds of more prominent specialists, who during previous decades developed science on semiconductors. Among them were not only physicists, but also specialists in electronics, physical, materials science.

The beginning of serious research refers to 1833, when Michael Faradays operating with silver sulfide found that the conductivity of semiconductors grows with an increase in temperature, as opposed to the conductivity of metals, which in this case decreases.

IN late XIX. The centuries were installed three most important properties of semiconductors:

1. The appearance of EMF when illuminating a semiconductor.

2. The increase in the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor during lighting.

3. Rectifting the contact property of a semiconductor with a metal.

In the 20s of the twentieth century Rectifying properties of contact of semiconductors with metal began to be practically used in radio engineering. Radiospecialist from the Nizhny Novgorod Radiotechnical Laboratory Oleg Losev in 1922 was able to apply a straightening device on the contact of the steel with a zincite crystal as a detector, in the detector receiver called "Crystadin". The crystal diagram (Fig. 4.5) contains the input adjustable circuit L 1 C 1 to which the external antenna A and ground is connected. Using the switch P 1 parallel to the input circuit, the detector d 1 is connected. Such a detector can not only be detected, but also to pre-enhance the signal when its operating point is on the incident site of the WAH (Fig. 4.5 (b)). At this site, the resistance of the detector becomes negative, which leads to partial compensation of losses in the circuit L 1 C 1 and then the receiver becomes the generator.

Potentiometer R 1 adjusts the detector current. Listening to the signals accepted by the radio station is carried out on a low-level telephone, the coils of which are included in series with a power source through the throttle DR 1 and the coil L 2.

The first sample of Kristadin was made by Losev in 1923. At this time, the central radiotelephone station began to work in Moscow, the transmissions of which one could take on simple detector receivers only near the capital. Kristadine Losev allowed not only to increase the range of radio station reception, but it was easier and cheaper. Interest in crystadine at that time was huge. "Sensational invention" - under such a title, the American magazine "Radio News" published in September 1924. The editorial article dedicated to the work of Losev. "The discovery of Loseva makes the era," the magazine wrote, expressing the hope that the complex electrovacuum lamp will soon replace a piece of zincite or other substance simple in manufacturing and application.

Continuing the study of crystalline detectors, loses discovered the glow of carbard when the electric current passes through it. After 20 years, the same phenomenon was open to American desterio physicist and got the name of electroluminescence. An important role in the development of the theory of semiconductors at the beginning of the 1930s was played by the works carried out in Russia under the leadership of Academician A.F. Ioffe. In 1931, he published an article with a prophetic title: "Semiconductors - new electronics materials." Soviet scientists have made a significant merit to the study of semiconductors - B.V. Kurchatov, V.P. Zhuza and others in their work - "to the question of the electrical conductivity of copper ski", published in 1932, they showed that the value and type of electrical conductivity is determined by the concentration and nature of the impurity. A little later, Soviet physicist - Ya.N. Frankel created the theory of excitement in semiconductors of paired charge carriers: electrons and holes. In 1931, British Wilson managed to create a theoretical model of a semiconductor, based on the fact that in the solid discrete energy levels of electrons of individual atoms are blurred into continuous zones separated by prohibited zones (energy values \u200b\u200bthat electrons cannot accept) - "zone theory of semiconductors ".

In 1938, Mott in England, Davydov in the USSR, Walter Schottky in Germany formulated, independently, the theory of straightening the action of the contact metal semiconductor. This extensive research program performed by scientists from different countries and led to experimental creation first point, and then a plane transistor.

4.4 The history of the development of field transistors.

4.4.1 The first field transistor was patented in the United States in 1926 / 30g., 1928 / 32g. and 1928 / 33gg. Lilienfeld is the author of these feet. He was born in 1882 in Poland. From 1910 to 1926 was a professor of the University of Leipzig. In 1926 immigrated to the United States and filed a patent application.

Proposed by Lilienfeld transistors were not introduced into production. The transistor for one of the first patents No. 1900018 is presented in Fig. 4.6.

The most important feature of the invention of Lilienfeld is that he understood the operation of the transistor on the principle of modulation of conductivity based on electrostatics. In the description, the patent is formulated that the conductivity of the fine region of the semiconductor channel is modulated by the input signal coming to the shutter through the input transformer.

In 1935, in England, a German inventor O. Hale received a patent for the field transistor

The scheme of patent No. 439457 is presented in Fig. 4.7 where:

1 - control electrode

2 - thin layer of semiconductor (Tellur, iodine, copper oxide, pentolar vanadium)

3,4 - ohmic contacts to the semiconductor

5 - source direct current

6 - Source of AC Voltage

7 - ammeter

The control electrode (1) performs the role of the shutter, the electrode (3) performs the role of the flow, the electrode (4) the role of the source. Feeding a variable signal to the shutter, located very close to the conductor, we obtain a change in the resistance of the semiconductor (2) between the drain and the source. With a low frequency, you can observe the oscillation of the arrow of the ammeter (7). This invention is a prototype of a field transistor with an isolated shutter.

The next period of the wave of inventions in transistors came in 1939, when after three-year-old surveys on a solid-state amplifier in the company "BTL" (Bell Telephone Laboratories) Shockli was invited to engage in the study of broth on a copper-oxygen rectifier. The work was interrupted by the Second World War, but before leaving to the front Shockli offered two transistors. Studies on the transistors resumed after the war, when in the middle of 1945, Shokley returned to BTL, and in 1946 Bardin came there.

In 1952, Shockley described a unipolar (field) transistor with an electrode controller, as shown in Fig. 4.8, from the back displaced P-N - transition. The proposed shockley field transistor consists of a n-type semiconductor rod (channel N-type) with ohmic conclusions on the ends. As a semiconductor used silicon (Si). On the surface of the channel, a P-N-transition is formed from opposite sides, so that it is parallel to the current direction in the channel. Consider how the current flows between ohmic contacts of the source and flow. Channel conductivity Determine the main charge carriers for this channel. In our case, electrons in the channel N-type. The conclusion from which the carriers start their way is called the source. In fig. 4.8 is a negative electrode. The second ohmic electrode to which the electrons are suitable - stock. The third output from the P-N transition is called the shutter.

The exact description of the processes in the field transistor presents certain difficulties. Therefore, Shocley proposed a simplified theory of unipolar transistor mainly explaining the properties of this device. When the input voltage changes (source-shutter), the reverse voltage on the P-N-transition changes, which leads to a change in the thickness of the locking layer. Accordingly, the cross-sectional area of \u200b\u200bthe N-channel changes through which the stream of main charge carriers passes, i.e. Output current. With a high shutter voltage, the locking layer becomes the thicker and the cross-sectional area decreases to zero, and the channel resistance increases to infinity and the transistor is locked.

In 1963, Hofstein and Himan described another design of the field transistor, where the field in a dielectric is used between the placard of the semiconductor and the metal film. Such transistors with the metal-dielectric-semiconductor structure are called TIR transistors. In the period from 1952 to 1970 Field transistors remained at the laboratory stage of development. Three factors contributed to the rapid development of field transistors in the 70s:

1) The development of semiconductor physics and progress in semiconductor technology, which made it possible to obtain devices with specified characteristics.

2) the creation of new technological methods, such as thin-film technologies to obtain a structure with an isolated shutter.

3) Wide introduction of transistors into electrical equipment.

4.5 The history of the development of serial production of transistors in the USA and the USSR

The accelerated development and production of transistors turned into the United States in a silicon valley located in 80 km from San Francisco. The emergence of silicon valleys are associated with the name of F. Termen - Dean of the University of Engineering Faculty of Stenford, when his students Hewlett, Pakcard and the brothers created firms that glorified their names during World War II.

The rapid development of the silicon valley began when Shockley left the "BTL" and founded his own firm for the production of silicon transistors with the financial assistance of the pet California Polytechnic Institute A. Beckkman. His firm began work in the fall of 1955, as the branch of the company "Beckman Instruments" in the Army barracks of Polaol-Alto. Shocley invited 12 specialists (Horsley, Neuss, Moore, Grinj, Roberts, Horney, Last, Jones, Cleiner, Blanmark, Nepic, Ca). In 1957, the company changed its name to "Shockly Transistor Corporation". Soon 8 specialists (Neuss, Moore, Glinic, Roberts, Horney, Last, Kleiner, Blanc) agreed with Beckkman and created a separate independent firm "Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation" at the heart of the activity that lay the mass production of high-quality silicon bipolar transistors. As the first product was chosen in 1957 a silicon N-P-N Mesatranzistor with a double diffusion of type 2N696. He demanded only two photolithography processes for creating an emitter and metal contacts. The term Mesatranzistor was proposed by Earli from BTL. By introducing an additional operation of photolithography, Horney replaced the scrapping of the collector to the diffusion pocket and closed the intersection of the emitary and collector transitions with the surface of thermal oxide (1000 o C). The technology of such transistors Horney called the planar process. In 1961, the large-scale production of two planar silicon bipolar transistors 2N613 (N-P-N), 2N869 (P-N-P) was launched

The Institute of Semiconductor Materials and Equipment (USA) was a genealogical tree and the first branches pledged from the company Shockley look like this: Last and Horney founded Amelco in 1961, which later turned into Teledyne Semiconductor. Horney in 1964 created Union Corbide Electronics, in 1967 - Intersil. Four firms were created annually, and for the period from 1957 to 1983, more than 100 firms were created in the silicon valley. Growth continues and now. It is stimulated by the closeness of the University of Stenford and California and the active participation of their employees in the organization of firms (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9 Dynamics of the Development of Silicon Valley.

1914-1920	1955 - 57	1960	1961	1968
Hewlett Pakard (two friends and brothers)	BTL Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory. (Beckman Instruments) Paolo Alto (Military barracks). SA Jones 12 people.		Andrew Grove	Intel (Intergreated Electronics) (Mountain View)

The first transistors released by the domestic industry were point transistors that were intended to enhance and generate oscillations with a frequency of up to 5 MHz. In the process of production of the world's first transistors, individual technological processes were developed and methods for controlling parameters were developed. The accumulated experience made it possible to proceed to the release of more advanced devices, which could already work at frequencies up to 10 MHz. In the future, plane, possessing higher electrical and operational qualities, came to replace the point transistors. The first transistors of the type P1 and P2 were intended to enhance and generate electrical oscillations with a frequency of up to 100 kHz. Then, more powerful low-frequency transistors P3 and P4 appeared. The use of which in 2 clock amplifiers made it possible to get output power up to several dozen watts. As the semiconductor industry develops, there was a development of new types of transistors, including P5 and P6, which compared with their predecessors have improved characteristics. Time passed, new methods of manufacturing transistors were mastered, and the P1 transistors - P6 were no longer satisfied with the current requirements and were removed from production. Instead, they appeared transistors of type P13 - P16, P201 - P203, which also belonged to the low-frequency unscrolment of 100 kHz. Such a low frequency limit is explained by the method of manufacturing these transistors carried out by the method of fusion. Therefore, transistors P1 - P6, P13 - P16, P201 - P203 is called alloy. Transistors capable of generating and strengthening electrical fluctuations with a frequency in tens and hundreds of MHz appeared much later - these were transistors of the P401 - P403 transistors, which marked the beginning of the application of the new diffusion method of manufacturing semiconductor devices. Such transistors are called diffusion. Further development went on the way to improve both alloys and diffusion transistors, as well as the creation and development of new methods of their manufacture.

5. Prerequisites for the appearance of microelectronics

5.1 Requirements for miniaturization of electrical elements by radio equipment developers.

With the advent of bipolar field transistors, the ideas of developing small-sized computer began to embody. Based on them began to create onboard electronic systems for aviation and space technology. Since these devices contained thousands of individual errega (electrical elements) and constantly required more and more magnification, and technical difficulties appeared. With an increase in the number of elements of electronic systems, they practically failed to ensure their performance immediately after the assembly, and ensure, in the future, the reliability of the functioning of systems. Even experienced assemblers and computer adjustments allowed several errors per 1000 adhesions. The developers assumed new promising schemes, and manufacturers could not run these schemes immediately after assembly because When installing, it was not possible to avoid errors, cliffs in the chain due to non-stop, and short circuits. Required long and painstaking commissioning. The problem of quality of installation and assembly works was the main problem of manufacturers when ensuring the performance and reliability of radio-electronic devices. Solving the problem of interconnects and was a prerequisite for the emergence of microelectronics. The prototype of future chips served as a printed circuit board, in which all single conductors are combined into a single integer and are manufactured simultaneously by the group method by watering the copper foil with the plane of the foil dielectric. The only type of integration in this case is the conductors. The use of printed circuit boards although it does not solve the problem of miniaturization, but it solves the problem of improving the reliability of interconnections. The technology of manufacturing printed circuit boards does not make it possible to make other passive elements simultaneously except conductors. That's why printed circuit boards did not turn into integrated chips in a modern sense. In the first of the 40s, crowded hybrid schemes were developed in the late 40s, the basis of their manufacture was the already spent manufacturing technology for the manufacture of ceramic capacitors, using the method of application of the ceramic substrate through stencils of pastes containing silver powder and glass. The transition to the manufacture of several interconnected condensers on one substrate, and then compound them with composite resistors, apparent, also with a stencil, followed by ignition led to the creation of hybrid schemes consisting of capacitors and resistors. Soon, discrete active and passive components were included in the composition of hybrid schemes: mounted capacitors, diodes and transistors. In the future, the development of hybrid schemes by mounted installations included ultra-miniature electrovacuum lamps. Such schemes obtained the name of thick-film hybrid integral chips (GIS). The thin film technology for the production of integrated circuits includes applying in vacuo to a smooth surface of dielectric substrates of thin films of various materials (conductive, dielectric, resistive).

In the 60s, the enormous efforts of researchers were aimed at creating thin-film active elements. However, reliably working transistors with reproducible characteristics could not be obtained, therefore, active mounted elements continue to use in thin-film GIS. By the time of the invention, integrated chips from semiconductor materials has already learned to make discrete transistors and resistors. For the manufacture of the capacitor, the capacitance of the displaced P-n transition has already been used. For the manufacture of resistors, ohmic properties of a semiconductor crystal were used. The queue was the task of combining all these items in one device.

5.2 Fundamentals of microelectronics technology.

The development of microelectronics is determined by the level of microtechnology achieved.

Planar technology. With planar technology, it is necessary to ensure the possibility of creating a pattern of thin layers made of material with various electrical characteristics to obtain an electronic circuit. An important feature of the planar technology is its group character: all integrated circuits (IP) on the plate are manufactured in one technological cycle, which allows you to simultaneously receive several semiconductor schemes.

Technological processes for producing thin films.

1) Epitaxia (ordering) is the process of extension on a crystal substrate of atoms ordered in a single crystal structure. So that the structure of the stripped film fully repeated the crystal orientation of the substrate. The main advantage of the equipment of the epitaxy is to obtain extremely pure films while maintaining the ability to regulate the level of doping. Apply three types of epitaxial buildings: gas, liquid and molecular.

With a gas epitaxy, hydrogen with an admixture of four silicon chloride (SiCl 4 + H 2) with a controlled concentration is passed through the reactor (Fig. 5.1), in which silicon plates (2) are located on graphite base (1). With the help of an induction heater, graphite is heated above 1000 0 s. This temperature is necessary to ensure the correct orientation of the precipitated atoms in the lattice and the production of single crystal film. The process is based on a reversible reaction: SiCl 4 + 2H 2 ↔ Si + 4HCl - a direct reaction corresponds to the preparation of the epitaxial film, the reverse reaction etching substrate. For doping of the epitaxial film, impurity atoms are added to the gas stream. The phosphorite (pH 3) is used as a donor impurity, and dyboran (B 2 H 3) as an acceptor impurity.

With liquid epitaxy, numerous structures are obtained from different materials. In fig. 5.2: 1, 2, 3, 4 - solutions

5 - sliding graphite solutions

6 - substrate

7 - Main graphite holder

8 - Pusher

9 - Electric furnace

10 - Quartz Pipe

11 - Termofar

A moving structure with different solutions consistently contemses solutions to the substrate. In this way, heterokers with various materials with a thickness of less than 1 microme (GE - Si, GaAs - GAP) are obtained

Molecular ray epitaxy is carried out in an ultrahigh vacuum and is based on the interaction of several molecular beams with a heated single-crystal substrate. In fig. 5.3 illustrates the process of obtaining the compound Al X Ga 1- X AS. Each heater contains a crucible, which is a source of molecular beam of one of the main elements of the film. The temperature of each heater is chosen in such a way that the pressure of the vapor, evaporated materials, is enough to form molecular beams. The selection of the temperature of the heater and the substrate receive films with complex chemical composition. Additional process of growing process is carried out using special dampers located between the heater and the substrate. The molecular-radiation epitaxy method is most promoted for solid-state electronics in which layered submicron sizes are played with a significant role.

2) Oxidation. The silicon dioxide layer is usually formed on the substrate due to the chemical compound of silicon atoms with oxygen, which is supplied to the surface of the silicon substrate heated technical furnace to a temperature of 900-1200 o C.

Fig. 5.4: 1 - Substrate

2 - quartz boat

3 - heater

4 - quartz tube

The oxidative medium may be dry or wet oxygen. Oxidation occurs faster in the atmosphere of wet oxygen, so it is used to obtain fat films SiO 2. The thickness of the oxide component of the tenths of the MKM is most often used, and the upper practical limit is 1-2 microns.

5.2.2 Lithographic processes used to form a cocology of microcircuits.

5.2.2.1 Photolithography.

Photolithography is the main technological process in microelectronics when receiving lines with a width of up to 1 μm and its share. First, the original of the microcircuit topology in a strong size (up to 500 times) is manufactured. Then make a photo with a decrease of 100 times, then 10 times, etc. While the final image on the plate will not accurately comply with the desired scheme. The obtained photoplastic is used as a mask for transmitting the pattern to the surface of the substrate. Consider the photolithographic process to obtain a hole in the silicon dioxide layer located on the substrate. Fig. 5.5.

1 - glass photo mask

2 - Photoresist

3 - SiO 2 (silicon oxide)

4 - Silicon substrate

5 - lightproof drawing on the photoemulsia

6 - ultraviolet radiation

a) primary coating

b) contact printing

c) after manifestation

d) after etching

d) after the removal of photoresist

At first, a photoresist (2) is applied to the oxide layer, then a glass photoglon (1) is applied to the photoresist with a pattern of the corresponding part of the oxide, which must be removed (5). Excognized photo masks in ultraviolet rays (6). Show. In the process of manifestation, non-exposed portions of photoresist (2) dissolve. The oxide layer in the window is poured with acidic solution and removed the remaining layer of the photoresist - this method is called the contact printing method. In addition, use projection seal when optical lenses are placed between the photoshop and substrate.

5.2.2.2 Electron-ray lithography.

To obtain a picture of the electronic lithography method, two methods are used:

1) The electronic beam, controlled by a computer, moves in a given way along the surface of the substrate.

2) Electronic beam passes through special masks.

In the first case, two types of scanning systems are used - raster and vector. In the raster system, the electronic beam is modulated by intensity and takes place next along the entire surface of the substrate. In the vector system, the electron beam deflects in such a way that its trace on the resist accurately corresponds to the desired figure.

In the second variant, the photocathode is placed on the surface of the optical mask with a given pattern. Ultraviolet rays irradiate the photocathode through the mask, which leads to emissions of electrons from the photocathode in the corresponding pattern of the regions. These electrons are projected to the surface of the resist, using homogeneous coinciding in the direction of electrostatic and magnetic fields. The resolution of such a system corresponds to submicron sizes over the entire substrate area.

5.2.2.3 X-ray lithography.

The X-ray lithography method is illustrated in Fig. 5.6:

1A - electronic beam

2a - target

3A - X-rays

1 - Transparent Material

2 - absorber

3 - Gasket

4 - Polymer film (resist)

5 - substrate

The mask consists of a membrane (4) transparent for X-rays that supports a film that has a given pattern and is made of the material that absorbing X-rays. This mask is located on the substrate covered with radiation sensitive resist. At a distance of the mask there is a point source of X-ray radiation, which occurs when the focused electron beam interacts with the target. X-ray rays irradiate a mask, creating projection shadows from X-ray absorber on polymer films. After exposure, either irradiated areas are removed with a positive resist, or not irradiated with a negative resist. At the same time on the surface of the resist, the relief is created corresponding to the drawing. After receiving the relief on the cutting resist, the substrate is processed by etching, increasing additional materials, doping, applying material through windows in the drawing of the resist.

5.2.2.4 ion-ray lithography.

It appeared as a result of finding ways to overcome the restrictions of electronic and X-ray lithography. Two ways of forming an image on an ionoresist are possible: scanning with a focused beam and projecting topology from a template into a plane of the substrate. Scanning electron-beam lithography is similar to scanning electronic lithography. HE +, H +, AR + ions formed in the ion source are pulled out from the source, accelerate and focus to the plane of the electron-optical system substrate. Scanning is performed by frames of 1 mm 2 with a step-by-step movement of a table with a substrate and combining on each frame. Scanning with a focused ion beam is intended for obtaining topology with dimensions of elements from 0.03-0.3 μm. The projection ion-ray lithography is performed by a wide collimated ion bunch of 1 cm 2.

Prospects for the development of planar technology in the United States are set out in the "National Technological Routing Map of Semiconductor Electronics" reflecting the development of microelectronics until 2010. According to the forecasts of this work, the main material in the production of mass SDI will be still silicon. In the production of SBI, it is envisaged to use advanced microlitography processes using resistive masks formed with ultraviolet or x-ray irradiation to create tocological patterns for semiconductor plates.

By 2010, it is planned to increase the diameter of the plates to 400 mm, reduce the critical size of the chip element (for example: shutter width) to 70 nm. Reduce the layout step up to 0.3 microns. Optical lithography retains a leading position in the production of SBI (super-high integrated circuits) up to the size of 150 nm, which is predicted already in 2003.

6. IV Electronics Development Period

6.1 The invention of the first integrated circuit

In 1960, Robert Neuss from Fairchild proposed and patented the idea of \u200b\u200ba monolithic integrated circuit (US patent 2981877) and applying planar technology was made by the first silicon monolithic integrated circuits. In the monolithic integrated circuit, planar diffusion bipolar silicon transistors and resistors are interconnected by thin and narrow aluminum strips lying on the passivating oxide. Aluminum connecting tracks are made by photolithography, by etching the aluminum layer sputted on the entire surface of the oxide. Such technology was named - technology of monolithic integrated circuits. At the same time, Kilbi from Texas Instruments made a trigger on a single crystal of Germany by performing compounds with gold wires. Such technology was named - technology of hybrid integrated circuits. The US Court of Appeal rejected Kilby's application and recognized Neuce inventor of monolithic technology with oxide on the surface, isolated transitions and connecting tracks on oxide, etched from the precipitated aluminum layer by photolithography. Although it is obvious that Kilby trigger is an analogue of the monolithic IC.

The family of monolithic transistor-transistor logic elements with four and more bipolar transistors on one silicon crystal was released by Fairchild in February 1960 and got the name "Micrological". The planar technology of Horney and the monolithic technology of Nois laid in 1960 the foundation for the development of integrated circuits, first on bipolar transistors, and then 1965-85. On field transistors and combinations of those and others. A small time gap between the idea and serial production of integrated circuits is explained by the efficiency of the developers. So in 1959, Horney conducts numerous experiments, it was performed by the technology of oxidation and diffusion of silicon plates to find the optimal depth of the diffusion of boron and phosphorus, and the conditions for masking the oxide. At the same time Neuss B. dark roomIn the evenings, on weekends, it hardly inflicts and exposes a photoresist on a plurality of silicon plates with oxide and aluminum in search of optimal aluminum etching modes. Grinnik personally works with devices, removing the characteristics of transistors and integrated circuits. When there is no precedent and experienced data of the shortest path to practical implementation - "DIY". The path that was chosen to four pioneers - Grinjan, Horney, Moore, Neuss.

6.2 Development of serial production of integrated circuits.

Two policy makers adopted in 1961-1962. influenced the development of silicon transistors and IP.

1) the decision of the IBM (New York) to develop for a promising computer of non-ferromagnetic storage devices, and electronic memory (storage devices) on the basis of N-channel field transistors (metal-oxide-semiconductor - MOS). The result of a successful implementation of this plan was released in 1973 by a universal computer with MOS Pole - IBM- 370/158.

2) Fairchild decision makers providing for expansion of work in a semiconductor research laboratory for the study of silicon devices and materials for them.

Moore, Neuss and Grinje from Fairchild were attracted in 1961 to recruit young professionals of the Illinois University - Sa, who read the physics course of Bardine semiconductors. SA has been recruited by specialists, who have just ended with the Asperantura (see Fig. 4.9). It was Wenless, Snow - Solid State Specialists, Andrew Grove - Chemist, who graduated from the University in Berkeley, Dil - Chemist practitioners.

The project on the physics of instruments and materials was introduced Dil, Grove and Snow. The project on circuit applications introduced Wenless. The results of studies of this four are still used in SDI technology.

In July 1968, Gordon Moore and Robert Neuss go from the Fairchild semiconductor department and on June 28, 1968, organize an Intel's tiny firm from twelve people who rent a room in the California Mountain View. The task that Moore was set in front of him, Neuss and who joined them a specialist in chemical technology - Andrew Grove, to use the enormous potential for integrating a large number of electronic components on one semiconductor crystal to create new types of electronic devices.

In 1997, Andrew Grove became the "man of the year", and the Intel headed by him, which became one of the leading in Silicon Valley in California, began to produce microprocessors for 90% of all personal computers of the planet. As of January 1, 1998, the cost of the company - $ 15 billion, annual income - $ 5.1 billion. Grove performs the responsibility of the Chairman of the Board of Directors. In 1999, a monthly company produces - 4 quadrillion of transistors i.e. More than half a million per inhabitant of the planet. The craftsmen with Intel create famous Pemtium I, II, III chips.

Andrew Grove was born on September 2, 1936 in Hungary, then his name was Androsh Grof. When soviet tanks Entered in 1956 in Budapest, Androsh ran to Austria and from there to New York. He graduated with the honors from the City College, defended his doctoral dissertation at the University of Berkeley California. Many large corporations wanted to get a young scientist specialist and engineer. Growing got, thanks to SA, Fairchild. ("Modern automation technologies (hundred)" 1/99. - Article about the company Intel.)

The history of the creation of electronic storage devices originates with the invention in 1967. Dinnard from the IBM of a mono-grade dynamic storage cell for a problem with an arbitrary sample (DZPV). This invention had a strong and long-term effect on the electronic industry of the current time and a remote future. Its influence according to the general recognition is comparable to the invention of the transistor itself. The cell combines one key on the PPPP and one condenser. The PPPP serves as a charge switch (record) and discharge (read). By 1988, the release of such cells took the first place in the number of all artificial facilities on our planet. Ca predicted at the beginning of the XXI century an annual release of these cells 10 20 pcs.

In fig. 6.1 Showing cross section Cells of one of the first serial Dzupv (dynamic storage device of an arbitrary sample) (256 Kbps capacity). The cumulative capacitor has a two-layer dielectric from silicon nitride on a thin layer of thermally grown silicon oxide. The dielectric constant in nitride ε \u003d 7.5 is greater than that of oxide ε \u003d 3.9, which ensures greater tank per unit area. The accumulation of greater charge on a smaller area and a higher information density. In fig. 6.1:

1 - aluminum discharge tire

2 - Waste tires made of refractory metal silicide

3 - Polykemond Condenser Opening

4 - Sutter dielectric dielectric

The information recorded on this cell is lost when the power supply is disconnected (energy-dependent ROM). In 1971, Intel Firoman-Benchkovski employee suggested and launched a non-volatile erasing programmable constant memory into serial production. Removing the charge on floating shutters of these ROM was carried out by ultraviolet light. Later, Intel engineers offered high-speed electric erasable ROMs.

The emergence of integrated microcircuits played a decisive role in the development of electronics. Positioning the new phase of microelectronics. The fourth period microelectronics is called schematic, because in the composition of the main base elements, elements are equivalent to discrete electro-radio elements and each integral chip corresponds to a certain principal electrical circuit, as well as for electronic nodes of the equipment of previous generations.

Special importance for mass production The microcircuum represents a microcircuit design method developed by Dennard from IBM. In 1973, Dennard and his colleagues showed that the size of the transistor can be reduced without a deterioration of its Wah (Volt-ampere characteristics). This design method was called the law of scaling.

6.3 Stages of the development of microelectronics

Integral chips began to be called microelectronic devices considered as a single product having a high density of the elements of the equivalent elements of the usual scheme. The complication performed by microcircuits of functions is achieved by increasing the degree of integration.

The development of serial production of integrated chip went steps:

1) 1960 - 1969. - Integral schemes with a small degree of integration, 10 2 transistors on a crystal with a size of 0.25 x 0.5 mm (MIS).

2) 1969 - 1975. - Integral schemes of the average degree of integrations, 10 3 transistors on the crystal (SIS).

3) 1975 - 1980s. - Integrated schemes with a large degree of integration, 10 4 transistors on the crystal (bis).

4) 1980 - 1985. - Integral microcircuits with over a large degree of integration, 10 5 transistors on a crystal (SBI).

5) from 1985 - integral chips with an ultrabas degree of integration, 10 7 and more transistors on a crystal (UBRIV).

The transition from MIS to UBIUS took place for a quarter of a century. As a parameter quantitatively illustrating this process, this process uses an annual change in the number of elements n placed on one crystal, which corresponds to the degree of integration. Under the law of Moore, the number of elements on one IP every three years increases 4 times. The most popular and profitable were the high density of the microprocessors of the company Intel and Motorolla.

In 1981- 1982, the progress of integrated circuits SBI was stimulated by the presence of lithography technology (electron-beam, X-ray and deep ultraviolet from the excimer laser) and the presence of industrial equipment. Already in 1983, Moore noted (at the International Conference) due to the formation of excessive production facilities, both in the United States and in Asia, progress in the development of microelectronics began to be determined only by the market situation. So already in 1985 - 1987, 80% of all ZUPWs in the United States supplies already Japan, since they managed to improve technology and reduce prices.

6.4 History of the creation of microelectronics in the USSR ("Bulletin of the Far Eastern Department of the Russian Academy of Sciences", 1993, 1 number)

According to the data published in the messenger, the founder of microelectronics in the USSR was Marier Filipp Georgievich. He was born in 1918 in the suburb of New York, in the family of a leaving from Greece Sarant. He graduated from the college in 1941, he received a diploma of an electrician engineer, worked in defense research centers, and in the evenings studied to pass the exam on the degree of Master of Technical Sciences. In his student years, he participated in the anti-fascist movement, joined the US Communist Party, was friendly with Rosenberg. When Rosenbergs were arrested, the FBI caused Saranta. After the first interrogation, the Sarand immigrated to the FBI in the USSR, replacing the name and surname. So we had a specialist - Starov F.G., who was committed to Czechoslavaki by the chief designer of the Military Technical Institute. When in 1955, Khrushchev took the course of the scientific and technical revolution, the Starros was invited to the USSR and offered to lead the special laboratory created in Leningrad under the auspices of the Aviation Technology Committee. Already in 1958, Staros appeared at the closed meeting of leading electronic industry workers with a report containing a proposal for the development of a new element base, and in fact, with the program for creating a new branch of science and technology - microelectronics. These ideas found support in the upper echelons of power, and already in 1959, Starros got the opportunity to create his design and technological bureau (ACTB). In the early 1960s, under the leadership of Staros, a digital control machine was developed (UM-1) with speed of 8 thousand operas / sec. and the duration of trouble-free operation 250 hours. It has not yet used chips (because their religion at that time was very low) and the active elements were Germany transistors P15. However, thanks to the page installation, a compact cheap car was turned out. In 1960, for the creation of this car, Starros received a state award. Nearest Assistant Starosa - Joshiv Viniaminovich Berg (in the past Joel Berr). Berg after the sudden immigration of Sarant went to look for him to Europe and found in Moscow when he was preparing for departure to Prague. Berr became Berg.

In 1962, Aktb visited Khrushchev. It was shown by the machines of mind-1 and electronics-200. Later, American experts noted that electronics-200 was the first computer of Soviet production, which can be considered well developed and surprisingly modern. This machine, on the first Soviet integrated circuits, was able to perform 40 thousand operations per second. Khrushchev was satisfied.

At this time, the State Committee of the Electronic Industry was already existed for defense and headed him Alexander Shokine - a man of progressive views. He suggested that Staros create a scientific and technical center of an electronic profile in the Moscow region (Zelenograd). Starvey with heat took over the execution and in a matter of weeks prepared a detailed plan for organizing a complex from several institutions and an experimental factory. The plan got approval in tops and Staros was appointed supervisor to the future center.

Lecture №1

1. Introduction. The subject and the basic concepts of electronics.

2. Home Principles of Transmission and Admission of Information.

Introduction The subject and the basic concepts of electronics.

Radioelectronics is the collective name of an extensive complex of areas of science and technology associated with the problems of transmission, reception and transformation of information using electromagnetic oscillations of the radio frequency range. Radioelectronics covers radio engineering, radiophysics and electronics, as well as a number of new areas that have been separated from their development and differentiation. Mostly electronics "owes" the success of radio engineering.

Radio engineering (from Lat. Radio - I emit rays; from Greek. Techne - art, skill) is the main foundation of electronics, and therefore often under the term "radio electronics" understand radio engineering. The technical aspect of radio engineering is associated with the development of a variety of systems intended for transmission and reception of information using electromagnetic oscillations (including optical).

Radiotechnical systems include:

Systems of sound and television broadcasting;

Global cosmic (satellite) radio communications systems, television broadcasting and radio navigation;

Mobile radio systems using land means - cellular,

professional (trunking), paging and wireless communication;

Communication systems with air, moving ground objects,

marine surface and underwater courts and other types of radio communications;

Radio control systems, biotelemetry and radiotelemetric

control of a variety of objects;

Radiotechnical systems of radar, anti-airframe and missile defense systems;

Meteorological and information and measuring systems and systems of various monitoring, including cosmic;

Multimedia and other systems.

Radio astronomy, radiography, radiosity, radio visiting and radioprotection, industrial electronics and radio engineering

radio Engineering, Medical Radio Engineering, etc.

Radiophysics - The section of physics in which the physical foundations of radio engineering are studied. The most important problems of radio physics are the study of the excitation and transformation of electrical signals and interference, as well as radiation and the propagation of electromagnetic oscillations.

The development of radio engineering is directly related to the creation of an element base, in particular, with the development of electronic devices for information transmission systems for the distance using electromagnetic oscillations. Further development of radio engineers continuously put the tasks of creating and implementing new electronic elements and nodes, which led to the emergence of an independent branch of science - electronics.

Electronics - Science on the interaction of charged particles (electrons, ions) with electromagnetic fields and methods for creating electronic devices and devices used mainly to transfer, storing and processing information, originated at the beginning of XX century. Originally developed vacuum electronics; On its basis, electrovacuum devices were created. Electronics clearly divided into energy or power electronics (powerful rectifiers, inverters, etc.) and microelectronics. Microelectronics - The electronics section associated with the creation of integrated circuits - indivisible products performing certain functions for conversion and processing signals and having a high packaging density

electrically connected elements.

Basic principles of transmission and reception of information.

In the radio electronics and communication technique, the transfer of information in space is carried out using electromagnetic oscillations (waves). By definition, K. Shannon: "Information is a message that reduces uncertainty" information is the intangible property of matter and is subject to certain laws. The most important of them is the law of conservation of information: "The information retains its value unchanged, while the information carrier remains unchanged. Set of signs (symbols) displaying (carrier) information is called message. The message can be represented as text of telegrams, information transmitted by telephone, radio, television and other types of radio communications, a set of electronic data stored on magnetic media - disks, flash memory (from English. Flash - "Flash"; reprogrammed constant non-volatile Memory that allows multiple overwriting) used in computers. The latest type of information was called electronic. Transfer a message with the help of material carrier. For example, when sending a message by mail, the carrier is the paper. In radio engineering and radio communications, media are various signals. Moreover, specific signals are used to transmit information - physical processes whose parameter values \u200b\u200breflect the transmitted messages. As a signal, you can use any physical process varying in accordance with the tolerated message. Signal - physical process (or phenomenon), carrying information about the state of any object of observation. In its physical nature, radiotechnical signals are electric, electromagnetic, optical, acoustic, magnetostatic, etc. In radio engineering, radio electronics and communication systems, electric (in last years and optical) signals. The physical value characterizing the electrical signal is the voltage, several less frequent current (sometimes power).

Electric signal U (T) represents the dependence of tension. Signals reflecting information can affect converters and signal amplifiers. Signal converters are divided into two classes. The physical process of one nature is influenced by the physical process of one nature (for example, a beep), and the output is the signal of another nature (in particular, the electrical signal at the microphone output, television chamber, etc.). In converters (and amplifiers) of another class, as a rule, transform (and amplification) of electrical signals without changes in their physical nature. Transmitted (hereinafter, useful) Signals form by changing certain parameters of the physical media in accordance with the transmitted message. This process of changing the parameters of the message carrier in radio engineering and communication is called modulation. It is advisable to enter the parameters of the transmitted signal, which are main in terms of its transfer. These parameters are the duration of the signal TC, its spectrum width FC. and dynamic range DC. The duration of the TC signal is a natural parameter that determines the time interval, within which this signal exists. The spectrum width of the transmitted signal Fc gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe speed of changing this signal inside the interval of its existence. The spectrum of the transmitted signal in principle may be unlimited. However, for any signal, you can specify the frequency range, within which its main (up to 90%) energy is concentrated. This range is determined by the width of the beneficial signal.

The message source (information source; information source) can be analog or discrete. The output of an analog source can have any value from the continuous range of amplitudes, while the output of the source of discrete information is the values \u200b\u200bfrom the final set of amplitudes.

In both cases, the carrier oscillation is used to transfer the message. The carrier is necessary to solve two tasks:

a) reduction of the size of the antennas (H \u003d λ / 4; λ \u003d 3 * 10 8 / f. );

b) accommodation large number Stations on the air.

The process, as a result of which one or more parameters of the bearing oscillation varies by the law of the transmitted message, is called modulation. The modulated high-frequency oscillation is referred to by secondary signals and is called a radio signal.

P is. Temporary diagrams for the process of amplitude modulation:

a - modulating signal; b - carrier oscillation; in am signal

For carrier, the dependence of the voltage of time is determined by the expression

where U h is an amplitude (maximum sinusoid height; note that the amplitude of the signal is called the module of its greatest deviation from zero, therefore, the amplitude is always positive) in the absence of modulation (amplitude of the carrier oscillation);<ω 0 - угловая (круговая) частота; φ 0 - начальная фаза; Ψ= ω 0 t + φ 0 - полная (текущая или мгновенная) фаза.

Circular frequency ω 0, oscillation period T 0 and cyclic frequency f. 0 \u003d 1 / t 0

related by relationship

With amplitude modulation, the envelope of the amplitude-modulated signal (AM signal) U h (t) coincides with the modulating signal form, so the expression takes the form:

Here k a is an indifferent proportionality coefficient, such that always u h (t) ≥ 0.

Analog radio systems. The simplified block diagram of the channel analog (with continuous signals) of the radio system (radio channel) with the so-called amplitude modulation (AM; from the English - Amplitude modulation, AM) of the carrier oscillation is presented in Fig.

Fig. Simplified structural diagram of the channel of the analog radio communication system

IN
In general, the original message S \u003d S (T) is not electrical, can have any physical nature (moving image, sound oscillation, etc.), and therefore it must be converted to an electric (primary) signal y (t) with an electrophysical Signal converter (EFIs), simpler signal converter, which is often combined with a coder encoder. The source of the message when telephone transmission is speaking; With a television - the transmitted image, etc., when transmitting speech and music, the microphone is served by the signal converter and the encoder; When transmitting the image - transmitting television tubes, or special matrices. In the telegraph when converting a signal, the sequence of the written message elements (letters) is replaced with a sequence of code symbols (0, 1 or point, dash), which is simultaneously converted into a sequence of direct current of DC of different duration, polarity, etc.

Digital (discrete) radio systems (DCS Digital Communication System). These are systems in which the transmitted and received signals are sequences of discrete characters. A typical example of such a system is telegraphy, in which the message and the signal are sequences of points, dash and gaps between them. In digital (discrete, impulse) information transmission systems, the energy of the beneficial signal is not continuously (as in the sinusoidal carrier - the harmonic carrier), and in the form of short pulses. This allows for the same total radiation energy as with continuous carrier, increase the peak (maximum) power in the corresponding pulse and thereby increase the noise immunity of the reception. In digital communication systems, the receiver's task is not exact reproduction of the transmitted signal, and the determination based on the signal distorted by the noise, which one signal from the final set was sent by the transmitter. A periodic sequence of video and radio pulses is used as a carrier of the primary signal E (T) in digital radio communications systems.

Simplified structural diagram of the radio channel of the digital communication system

Fig. Wave propagation trajectories at different angles of fall

Fig. Scroll meter electromagnetic oscillations, spreading waves with spatial rays

Fig. Distribution of meter waves

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution

Higher professional education

"Penza State University"

________________________________________________________________

P. G. Andreev, I. Yu. Naumova

Fundamentals design of electronic means

Tutorial

Publishing house

Penza state

university

UDC 621.396.6.001.2.

R E C E N Z E N T s:

department of Information Technologies and Systems

GOVPO "Penza State Technological Academy"

doctor of Technical Sciences, General Director of FSUE "Research Institute of Electronic Mechanical Devices"

V. G. Nadorzov

A65 Andreev, P. G.

Fundamentals of electronic means: studies. Manual / P. G. Andreev, I. Yu. Naumova. - Penza: Publi Penz. State University, 2009. - 147 p.

The main approaches to the definition of the design process are presented, a systematic approach is considered when designing electronic means. Much attention is paid to factors affecting the design of the RES, operating conditions, descriptions of basic supporting structures and synthesis and analysis tasks when designing electronic means. The main tasks of the experiment planning are sufficiently detailed.

The textbook was prepared at the Department "Designing and Production of Radio Parts" and is intended for students of the specialties of the radio electronic profile.

UDC 621.396.6.001.2.

© Andreev P. G., Naumova I. Yu., 2009

© Publisher Penza

state University, 2009

Introduction

The purpose of learning discipline"The foundations of the design of electronic means (ES)" is the preparation of students to design ES: familiarization with the system approach to their development. The discipline gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe EC design methodology with a wide use of automated design systems (CAD).

Subject of study of discipline -Methodology ("strategy") design, defining design as a process and product.

Tasks for studying discipline: Studying ES as a large technical system, a systematic approach as a methodological basis for designing structures and technologies of radio-electronic means (RES), a regulatory framework for design, standards, document management, element and constructive database.

purpose: Preparation of a student for independent work in the field of ES design on the basis of automated systems, taking into account the operation of regulatory documents, the impact of the object of installation, internal and external destabilizing factors.

The above can be represented by Figure 1.

Figure 1 - object, tasks and purpose of studying discipline

Study of the design methodology, design design using computers is the most important in the training system Engineer Specialty "Design and technology of electronic means".

The training manual contains sections on the main issues of the discipline "Basics of electronic means design". Sections consist of chapters in which a detailed description of the design issue is given.

The training manual is written on the basis of lectures that the authors for a number of years are read by the discipline "Basics of electronic means design".

Section 1 General EC Design Questions

Chapter 1 Basic concepts and definitions

The concept of ES. Determining the design process. The main directions of the historical development of ES. Areas of application of electronics. Communication of radio electronics with other areas of science and technology.

Definition of ES.

Electronics - the product and its components, the basis of which the principles of the transformation of electromagnetic energy are laid.

Under the term "electronic equipment" means any type of radio-electronic, electronic computing and control equipment built using a microelectronic element base.

In modern educational and scientific and technical literature, the terms "Radio electronic equipment (REA)", "Computer", "Electronic Computing Machine - Emm", "Electronic Computing Equipment - EVA", "Electronic Computing Means", " Radio electronic means - RES "," Biomedical equipment "and other fundamental differences between these terms from the point of view of design and technological design. Therefore, you can use the term "Electronic Means - ES".

Electronic funds include electronic means and radio electronic equipment.

RES - the product and its components, the basis of which the principles of radio engineering and electronics are laid (GOST 26632-85). Examples of RES: Radio, TV, tape recorder, radio transmitter, radar station, radio measuring instruments.

REA is a set of technical means used to transmit, reception and (or) transformation of information using electromagnetic energy (GOST R 52907-2008).

From a cybernetic point of view of ES (RES) can be represented as a "black box" (Figure 2) having - output parameters (for example, for the receiver it is the output power, frequency range, sensitivity, mass, overall dimensions, cost, reliability indicators), in general, these are the main properties of the RES; - primary parameters (RES elements parameters: resistivity of resistors, parameters of transistors, microprocessors, capacitors, the mass of electrical elements - ERA, their overall dimensions) affecting the output parameters; - input parameters (for example, input level, supply voltage); - Parameters of external influences (temperature, humidity, mechanical effects, voltage fluctuations in the network).

Figure 2 - Cybernetic Model ES "Black Box"

Such an ES representation makes it possible to establish a connection between the output and input parameters, external influences in the form of a "communication function":

, (1.1)

where j.= 1, 2, ..., n.; I. = 1, 2, ..., m., f. \u003d 1, 2, ..., L, h. = 1, 2, ..., k..

Design process

The complexity of the problem of finding the type of equation (1) leads to a variety of private approaches to the design of ES.

What is design? It:

- "targeted task solving activities" (L. B. Archer);

- "Decision making in conditions of uncertainty with serious consequences in case of an error!" (A. Azimov);

- "Optimal satisfaction of the amount of true needs at a certain complex of conditions" (E. Matthett);

- "Inspirational jump from the facts of real to the possibilities of the future" (J. K. Page).

It seems that there are as many different design processes as there are authors describing this process.

However, the design process is one, whatever we design (aircraft, tank, ES). And the nature of the design varies from the circumstances (the development of drawings, tooling the idea of \u200b\u200bthe design).

The general definition of design gives J. K. Jones based on the design results.

"The goal of the design is to establish changes in the environment of an artificial environment." As a result, RES is created - a complex object that is associated with an existing environment depends on it, affects it (Figure 3).

Figure 3 - design goal

EC design should be considered in two aspects: as a process for describing the future product and as a final product (product) (Figure 4).

Figure 4 - Design approaches

The first approach is the design as the process of compiling a description of the future product, i.e., a set of actions performed by the designers (activity of designers as such). In this case, the result of the design is not the material object itself, but its model. This practical model of the object indicates that it is, in what quantity in which sequence and how should be taken and done to get a material technical object.

The second approach is the design as a product of these actions, i.e., the material technical object, submitted either in the form of a project, or in the form of layouts, samples or finished products.

The main directions of the historical development of ES

The history of the design of the RES begins in 1895, consists of nine major stages and is associated with the emergence of the main problems of design design: reduce cost, increase reliability, complex microminiature RES. The history of the development of ES structures should be analyzed, based not only for the complication of structures, the emergence of new properties, but also on the relationship between the design of the RES with circuitry, technology, operation.

The design of the RES began simultaneously with the development of radio engineers.

On May 7, 1895, in St. Petersburg at a meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society, Professor A. S. Popov demonstrated the work of the device for receiving electromagnetic waves. The appearance of the receiver with an electric ring and a receiver scheme A. S. Popova is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5 - receiver A. S. Popova:

a) the appearance of the receiver with electric call, b) receiver scheme

In 1906, the American Engineer De Forest invented a three-electrode lamp (triode), initiating the development of scientific foundations and principles for the construction of electronic devices (Figure 6).

Figure 6 - First Electronic Lamps with Mesh Li De Fores

In 1907, an English engineer H. D. Round, who worked in the world-famous laboratory of Marconi, accidentally noted that a working detector around a point contact arises a glow, which marked the beginning of the development and creation of LEDs.

In 1922, during his nightly radiovakht, the 18-year-old radio amateur Oleg Vladimirovich Losev discovered the glow of the crystalline detector, did not limit himself with the statement of the fact, tried to find it practical application and moved to the original experiments. A luminous detector can be suitable as a light relay as a rayless light source.

The first LEDs having industrial importance were created in the 60s of the last century. A large contribution to the work on the study of physical processes in the field of LED improvement was made by the Russian scientist J. I. Alfere (1970), who received the Nobel Prize in 2000.

Radio electronic apparatus of the beginning of the twentieth century. It was a wooden box (Figure 5 a), on the walls of which the main parts are located on the walls: lamps, inductors, wire resistors, and on the inside, it was installed with a bare wire. The connection was performed by threaded parts (bolt, nut).

First stage The design stories of the REA are associated with the appearance of a new design solution in the 20s in the 20s: a horizontal wooden shield was installed in the box - the carrier panel, it was placed on it, and only control knobs were placed on the ebonite front panel. Such a decision was due to the fact that it was during this period that the Object of the research engineer and the radio amateur has become a mass use. The consumer was interested in the inclusion, setup to the desired station, turning off the receiver and its appearance.

Already at the first stage of the history of the design of the REA, the relationship of the design solution (design) with the "man-operator" was manifested and there was a need to take into account the operational requirements: ease of operation and requirements of aesthetics.

The production of the REA of this period was extremely simple: several parts of any sizes, forms and types were connected to each other, connected to the power and were regulated until they started working normally.

The design experience was based on the traditions of telegraph and electrical equipment.

Second historical stage Related to the appearance in 1924 lamps with a shielding grid, and in 1928 - a three-hundredth lamp - a penter. Functional complication of equipment (increasing the gain, increasing the number of cascades) led to the need for shielding. Initially, wooden parts were faced with a metal foil with nails and glue, and later to combine constructive requirements and screening requirements began to apply the chassis from sheet brass and intercounted shielding. In the future, the brass was replaced with copper and aluminum and introduced the shielding of the inductance inductors of the high and intermediate frequency cascades, which is still applied.

Rea at this stage was a metallic box chassis (later steel with corrosion protection) with the base at the bottom of the installation and the metal front panel.

The third stage of the history of the design of REA associated with the introduction of standard panels in the 1930s, 482 mm wide and a height, a multiple of 43 mm mm, which allowed reduce the cost of standard Rack frames, cabinets, special details for them. It was the beginning of the introduction of standardization into radio equipment, the establishment of the relationship between the design solution and the production process. The introduction of a new technological process led to the replacement of threaded compounds of installing elements soldering. The size of the contact node decreased, the possibility of placing the elements, but increased unwanted electrical and electromagnetic connections within the REA, the question of the effect of the geometric dimensions of the REC was aroused.

The fourth stage of the history of the design of the REAThe end of the 30s G. G. is characterized by expanding the areas of use of REC. It is used in the field (Figure 7), it is installed on board the aircraft, on ships, cars.

The use of REC in the field has delivered the problem of moisture protection and protection against the influence of climatic influences, and the use of REC on cars, airplanes, ships - the task of protection against mechanical effects. The question of the sealing of Raa put forward the task of providing heat outlet.

Figure 7 - Raa in the field

But the most important thing was recognized that the reliability of the equipment is of paramount importance. The equipment began to be developed in relation to the installation object. The design solution was dependent on the operating conditions, features of the "man-operator".

Fifth Stage Design History Related to the appearance in the 40s of the printed installation and automatic assembly methods. Printed installation dramatically reduced the size of the product, allowed to effectively apply small-sized standard parts, apply an automated soldering. However, with an increase in the installation density, the problem of heat removal appeared. The use of miniature passive elements when using powerful lamps reduces the idea of \u200b\u200bminiaturization.

In REA, until the end of the 40s, G. Used as an active element electron-vacuum lamps. This equipment refers to I-MU generation. The "generation" was introduced for a computer, but in the future spread to all varieties of ES.

Sixth stage of development of REA structures It begins with the appearance in 1948 of the transistor developed by American physicists V. Shokley, U. Brattein, J. Bardin. The use of transistors made it possible to significantly improve some characteristics of the REC, especially in terms of reliability, power consumption, overall dimensions. In the 50s, the rapid development of electronic and computing equipment begins.

The equipment of this period refers to II-MUSH generation. For REC II-generation, the main structural unit is the module. As modules, assemblies on printed circuit boards with body transistors and discrete mounted elements are used, as well as assemblies from the micromodules of the trample (Figure 8) and a flat type. Blocks are still connected by harnesses, cables, pin and plug connectors.

Figure 8 - printed circuit board with assemblies made of micromodules

Seventh stage of the history of the design of the REA It is characterized by the development of equipment capable of withstanding critical environmental conditions. The late 60s of the city of G. is installed on rockets, artificial Earth satellites (ISS), managed projectiles, cosmic ships. The complexity of devices in connection with the complication of the functions performed by the equipment is sharply increasing - on the one hand .. On the other hand, the expansion of the areas of use of the REA increases the requirements for mass, overall size, reliability, cost. These contradictions led to the emergence of tasks that called the problem of complex microminiature.

After the appearance in 1958 the integrated chip began to be developed by REA III-th generation. The basics of REA III generation are integrated chips (IC). They contain up to 10 to 40 equivalent elements and are a functional node (trigger, signal generator, amplifier, etc.), located in an individual case. The placement of the ISS is carried out on a common circuit board (single-layer or multilayer) (Figure 9).

Figure 9 - Printed circuit board with chips

For this period, indigenous changes are characterized in building structures. New design methods based on the use of the latest technology began to be applied. Wide distribution received a functional node design method with the unification of the size of functional nodes, blocks (Figure 10).

Figure 10 - functional node

The appearance in 1960 laser (the opening of Soviet scientists Basova and Prokhorov) led to the development of optical communication.

The eighth stage of development of REA designs (The 70s of the city of the last century) is characterized by the complication of the REC. Equipment IV-th generation Contains large integrated circuits (bis), large hybrid IP (BGIS). At this stage, the problem of integrated microminiature, associated with the development of small-sized electrical radiation elements (ERA).

Further complication of the RES is associated with the introduction of electronics in various areas of human activity (in particular, the development of biomedical equipment).

Ninth stage (mid 80s g g) - development of RES V-th generationwhich use functional electronics devices.

Functional electronics devices are made on media with distributed parameters. In such environments at the right moment under the influence of the control signal, dynamic inhomogeneities arise. These inhomogeneities are controlled by the passage of the signal. The use of devices of functional microelectronics is equivalent to sharp increase in the degree of integration compared to conventional IC.

Functional electronics appliances include, for example, piezoceramic filters, storage devices on cylindrical magnetic domains, microprocessors.

Application areas of radio electronics

Currently, RES is used for radio communications, broadcasting, television, radar, radio navigation, radio control, radiotelemetry, radioissimia, radio astronomy, radiometectors, radio applications. RES is also applied in industry, medicine, in scientific laboratories, in transport, in everyday life.

Radio, optical and wired communication- Reception, transmission of radio signals from one subscriber to another radio, optical or wired communication lines.

The equipment should provide multi-channel, unoccupied entry into contact, noise immunity.

Broadcasting and television - Transfer of speech, musical or entertainment messages to large groups of people.

The instrument should provide sufficient range of actions, the required number of channels and high quality playback of signals (mono-, stereo or quadroponic - for acoustic, black and white, color and volumetric - for visual).

Radio navigation - Driving airplanes and ships (including spacecraft) with radio resources.

The equipment requires high accuracy.

Radar - Detection, identification and definition of coordinates and motion parameters of various moving and stationary objects.

The equipment should ensure accuracy and accuracy of work in interference.

Radio control - control using radio signals by various objects and processes.

The equipment should provide simplicity, accuracy and security control.

Radar and radio control can be particular cases of radio navigation.

Radiotelemetry - A special case of radio communications - transmission of telemetry information, that is, information about various processes and phenomena occurring on the objects remote from the place of reception (aircraft, rockets, spacecraft).

The equipment should ensure accuracy, speed and often to be small and economical.

Radio astronomy - Getting information about space objects.

The instrument should provide the highest sensitivity and broadband, as they determine the number of information received. Astronomy uses radar.

Radio meteorology - Getting information about the status of weather in various places of land.

The equipment should ensure accuracy and timeliness of obtaining meteorods.

Radio exploration - Military intelligence with radio resources, in particular, intelligence data on the enemy's radio resources (on places of their location and parameters of emitted signals).

Geological exploration - Exploration with the help of radio resources of mineral deposits.

Radio coat - The use of radio resources to create interference with the normal functioning of the enemy's radio communications.

Radioisme - Measurement using radio media radiotechnical parameters of radio signals (field strength, power, frequency, phases, modulation depth).

The instrument should provide the required accuracy, stability, level and speed, the minimum effect on the controlled price parameter.

Industrial radio electronics - Application of ES in industry, in transport. This is the use of television for dispatching service at factories and railway stations, as well as to observe difficult people accessible by phenomena and processes (for example, processes occurring at high temperatures or at high depths), the use of high-frequency radiation for hardening steel and wood drying, devices Data processing in ACS, shop machine.

The equipment should provide the required quality and simplicity of management, high reliability and silent operation.

Medical electronics - The use of methods and means of radio electronics to create radiation with healing properties in the treatment of diseases, obtaining information about various biological processes, "seamless surgery" with radio media.

The equipment should provide high efficiency with minimal undesirable effects on the body, to be easy to maintain, often be superminature.

Radioelectronics for scientific research - the use of radio resources for information on technological processes, for the study of outer space, internal studary and molecular processes, biological research; Creating radiation for the impact on the studied materials, objects, recording devices and playback of signals: acoustic, visual on various media.

The equipment should provide selective energy impact in accordance with the appointment, be miniature.

Similar information.

The concept of "electronics" was formed as a result of combining the concepts of "radio engineering" and "electronics".

Radio engineering is the science area using electromagnetic oscillations of the radio frequency range to transmit information over long distances.

Electronics is the area of \u200b\u200bscience and technology using the phenomena of the movement of electrical charge carriers occurring in vacuo, gases, liquids and solids. The development of electronics made it possible to create an element base of electronics.

Consequently, electronics is a collective name of a number of science and technology related areas related to transmission and transformation of information based on the use of radio frequency electromagnetic oscillations and waves; The main ones are radio engineering and electronics. Methods and means of electronics are used in most areas of modern equipment and science.

The main stages of the development of radio electronics

Birthday Radio is considered to be on May 7, 1895, when A.S. Popov demonstrated the "Device for detecting and registering electrical oscillations". Regardless of Popov, but later, Marconi at the end of 1895 repeated the experiences of Popov on radio telegraphy.

The invention of the radio was a logical consequence of the development of science and technology. In 1831, M. Faraday found the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, in 1860-1865. J. K. Maxwell created the theory of the electromagnetic field and proposed a system of electrodynamic equations describing the behavior of the electromagnetic field. German physicist GERS in 1888. For the first time experimentally confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves, found a way to excite them and detects. Opening in 1873. U. Smith inner photo effect and in 1887, the head of the external photo effect served as the basis for the technical development of photovoltaic devices. The discoveries of these scientists are prepared by many others.

Simultaneously there was a development of electronic technology. In 1884, T. Edison opened thermoelectronic emissions, and so far in 1901 Richardson studied this phenomenon, electron-ray tubes were already created. The first electrovacuum device with a thermobatode - diode - developed by D.A. Fleming in 1904. In the UK and used to straighten high-frequency oscillations in the radio. In 1905, Hell invented Gazotron, 1906-1907. Marked by the creation in the USA D. Festo the three-electrode electrovakum instrument, called "Triode". The functionality of the trigger was extremely wide. It could be used in amplifiers and electrical oscillation generators in a wide frequency range, frequency converters, etc. The first domestic triodes produced in 1914-1916. Independent N.D. Papailxi and M.A. Bonch-Bruyevich. In 1919, V. Skhotth developed a four-electron vacuum device - Tetrod, whose widespread use began in the period 1924-1929. Works I. Langmuir led to the creation of a five-electrode device - a penter. Later, more complex and combined electronic devices appeared. Electronics and radio engineering united in electronics.

By 1950-1955 A number of electrovacuum devices capable of working at frequencies up to a millimeter wave range was created and launched into serial production. Successes in the development and production of electrovacuum instruments have already allowed the forties of the twentieth century to create sufficiently complex radio engineering systems.

The constant complication of tasks solved by radio-electronic systems required an increase in the number of electrical accumulative instruments used in the equipment. The development of semiconductor devices began slightly later. In 1922 O.V. The eline was opened the possibility of generating electrical oscillations in a scheme with a semiconductor diode. Soviet scientists A.F. contributed great contribution to the theory of semiconductors at the initial stage. Ioffe, bp Davydov, V.E. Locksharov.

Interest in semiconductor devices increased dramatically after in 1948-1952. In the Laboratory of Belle Phone under the leadership of U.B. Shocley created a transistor. In unprecedented short period, mass production of transistors in all industrialized countries began.

From the late 50s - early 60s. Radioelectronics becomes mainly semiconductor. The transition from discrete semiconductor devices to integrated circuits containing up to dozen-hundred thousand transistors on one square centimeter of the substrate area and being completed functional nodes has further expanded the possibilities of electronics in the technical implementation of the most complicated radio electrical complexes. Thus, the improvement of the element base led to the possibility of creating equipment capable of solving actually any tasks in the field of scientific research, technology, technology, etc. .

The meaning of electronics in the life of a modern man

Radioelectronics is an important tool for communications and communication techniques. The life of modern society is unthinkable without sharing information, which is carried out with the help of means of modern electronics. It is used in radio communications systems, broadcasting and television, radar and radio navigation, radio control, and radiotelemetry, in medicine and biology, in industry and space projects. In the modern world without electronics of unimaginable televisions, radio receivers, computers, space ships and supersonic aircraft.

It should be noted a huge role of radio equipment in the study of the atmosphere, the near-empty space, the planets of the solar system, near and far space. The latest achievements in the development of the solar system, planets and their satellites is a visual confirmation.