The enormous influence of the ideas of Rousseau also had on the pedagogical creativity of I.G. Pestalotski (1746-1827), with the activities of which is associated with a whole stage in the development of a humanistic educational and educational tradition. Pestalozzi claimed "that in the nature of each person it is originally taking force and means sufficient so that he can create a satisfactory environmental conditions; That obstacles opposing in the form of external circumstances to the development of congenital and human forces, by nature of their overcoming ". He came to the conclusion that "the totality of the art of the upbringing used for the purposes of the natural development of the forces and the challenges of a person, implies if not a clear knowledge, then in any case the living inner feeling of the path in which nature is undergoing, developing and forming our forces" .

For Pestalozzi, education is the help of a developing person in mastering the culture, in self-division to the perfect state; This is the help of the nature of the child seeking public development; This is the help of self-development laid in the person and abilities.

To ensure the harmonious development of a child in complete agreement with its nature, Pestalotski was calculated by the theory of elementary education developed by him, which includes physical, labor, moral, aesthetic and mental education (acquisition of elementary knowledge). All these aspects of education must be carried out in close relationship and interaction. * Physical education: based on a natural desire for movements; Help home, games; "School elementary gymnastics" (the simplest movements associated with self-service); Labor education - "Special Education for Industry"; On the basis of "elementary gymnastics" to conduct "industrial gymnastics". * Moral education: Development of active love for people. From love to mother in spiral. Raising awareness of themselves as part of the great human whole and spread its active love on all people. Personal example. The close connection of moral education with religious, religion is the basis of morality. Close connection of physical education with moral. * Tasks, content and methods of elementary education: Visuality is the highest principle of training; The educator must teach children to watch. * The simplest elements of all knowledge

• - number, shape, word. Elementary learning - child learning to count, measure, speak. * Inductive Training Road
• "The sequence at which every new concept is a small, almost imperceptible addition to previous knowledge, very well learned and become indelible." * Development in the process of learning abilities.

In his novel, Liengard and Gertrude, Pestalotski draws the ideal of the influence of good education in the family and school on the welfare of the whole community, and therefore the whole people, and in other writings gives a solid foundation of the learning methodology in the elementary school. Pestalotski himself showed his pedagogical activities a high example of a teacher and an educator, for whom the most important of the benefit of children entrusted to him. Pestozzi's views had big influence The German schools and the prosperity of German schools from 1820 to date depended mainly from the activities of the disciples of the Swiss teacher. Influenced by Pestalotzi ideas, extensive pedagogical literature arises in Germany; Many figures are theoretically developing psychology in applied to pedagogy and questions about training and education; Others are engaged in the methodology for educational items both in the folk school and in secondary education. Thus, well-known views are established, which gradually penetrate into all sectors of society and, undoubtedly, improve the education of children even the poorest classes of the people. The governments of all formed countries are penetrated by the idea that the upbringing and training of children is important and must be fenced from the infinite arbitrariness of the parents; As a result, school laws appear almost everywhere, which introduce mandatory training and determine the minimum of knowledge and skills that must be reported to each child.

The principle of visibility. Many years of experience Training and special psychological and pedagogical studies have shown that the effectiveness of learning depends on the degree of involvement of human senses to the perception of all organs. The more diverse sensual perception of the educational material, the more firmly it is absorbed. This pattern has long found its expression in the didactic principle of clarity, to the rationale for which the substantial contribution of Ya.A.

Komensesky, I.G. Pestozzi, k.d. Ushinsky, but in our time - L.V. Zankov

From the very beginning, Pestalotski had a strong desire for the unity of pedagogical and philosophical views. It is not by chance that the contemporaries put the doctrine of the education with the philosophy of Kant. However, according to praise, Pestalocci is not only not inclined, but not prepared to make it clear and fully solve the philosophy, clothed with his pedagogy. Thus, he has a problem of strictly scientific construction of the theory of upbringing remains unresolved. Pestalozzi showed the need to combine visibility with special mental formation of concepts. Ushinsky revealed the meaning of visual sensations for the development of students' speech. L.V. Zankov studied in detail possible options Combine words and clarity. Visuality in didactics is understood more widely than direct visual perception. It includes both perception through motor, tactile sensations. Therefore, laboratory equipment, static and dynamic teaching aids include visual funds.

Music is the language of the universe. The beneficial effect of it is conscious in ancient times. Music has a huge educational influence on man. The famous German teacher and an expert on children's natures Heinrich Pestalotski says: "This is a good school where singing has been developed." Everyone is probably familiar with the words: "Where music and singing, there is no evil there, go beyond there." The more wider and many people will be a circle of people who love and understand music, the fact that we dare to think, in our private and public life, we counted more elements of that high spiritual lift, the mood when our heart becomes more receptive to the noblest gusts of compassion, love, reverence before Something standing above everyday prose ... "

The child in the boarding school is nothing during the days, weeks, months does not solve himself. When to get up to put in a portfolio, where to sit down in the dining room, when to get up because of the table, when to say thanks to the chefs - all the child decishes the teacher. Children fully provide, dress, fed well, they have a very lightweight life, but completely empty and boring. No one loves children, but no one hits, does not punish. This is what Pestalozzi's Swiss teacher's such institutions writes: "Unnecessary generosity, calm, careless saturation of all the needs of these institutions kill embryos of hardworking and inquiry" (Pestalozzi, Op., Vol. 1, p. 232). The keyword here "kill".

Naturally, the transition to the point of view of the assimilation and development of the child determines all claims of psychology in determining the content of learning. The organic connection of pedagogy with psychology has become indisputable since the end of the XVIII century. "Pedagogical Psychology" was interpreted as an application of psychology data to the learning and education process. At the same time, two questions were allocated to the fore: a) as far as the teaching methods correspond to the possible mental processes of the child; b) What is the importance of learning methods for the development and deployment of its mental functions. Pestalotski, psychological theory of perception served as the basis and justification of visual learning methods, and compliance with the principle of graduality was to ensure the accumulation of knowledge.

In world practice, it was repeatedly made attempts to realize the ideas of personal-oriented learning, starting, probably with the ideas of Education Jean-Jacques Rousseau, I.G. Pestozzi, GD. TORE, M. Montessori, etc. With all the difference in their concepts of these teachers, the desire to educate free person, Make a student to the center of attention of the teacher during the pedagogical process, provide a student with the possibility of active cognitive activity through creativity, through independent expedient activities. "My students," wrote Pestalozzi, "will recognize new not from me; They will open this new themselves. My main task is to help them disclose, develop our own ideas. " These ideas were based on the basis of the so-called open schools or classes - open education. The basic principles of open education were proclaimed: individual training, responsibility for their own successes, cooperation, and focus on continuous education. Training was built on the principles of decentralization on individual programs. Following the ideas of Jean-Jacques Russo, open schools They were more concerned about the life of the student, his emotional sphere, his interests, and not his formation in the narrow sense of the word. It must be said that currently those, very few open schools that still continue to function in the United States, somewhat depart from orientation for free education and, although they adhere to individual plans (for the day, week) and training programs for each student, all -taki clearly focus on general recommendations about learning purposes curriculum, requirements for the levels of possession of educational material that proceed from the federal and local organs Education. For the rest, that is, in the planning of the student's working day (it makes it completely independently or under the guidance of the teacher), contacts with the teacher, the adoption of independent decisions about the rate of promotion, in the choice of training subjects for the day, etc. The principles of open education remain in force. It must be admitted that the activity of students in these schools, fully delivered under the personal responsibility of the students themselves, very high. Guys, everyone, in accordance with his own plan for a day, transfers from the teacher to the teacher, reporting on the work done and receiving the following tasks for independent elaboration or to seminar classes under the guidance of the teacher. All student's activities are fixed in special work sheets for each subject.

Individual Style Approach (The Learning Style Approach) is based on individual features each student, features mental Development Pupil, temperament, type of nervous activity, etc. You can turn to the pedagogical views of the humanists. Pestoszi, as well as Rousseau, like M. Montessori, insisted that the teacher should respect the student's experience preceding this stage, the features of its development. It is necessary to start with what is familiar to the student, gradually revealing increasingly complex phenomena in front of him, based on the independent activity of the student. People in nature are different. The fact is that some students are able-bodied in the morning, others - in the afternoon; Some need a clear, sometimes literally step by step manual from the teacher, others prefer initiative, independent training, do not tolerate guardianship; Some better assimilate the material with a visual support, others better perceive the material on the rumor; Some can focus on 20-30 minutes, others are distracted after 5-10 minutes; One previous experience of knowledge is rather rich, it can be easily relying in the further development of the child, in other different reasons it may be insignificant, and it has to make a lot of effort to enrich it. The traditional school, of course, cannot take into account the entire spectrum of the identity of the student. As a result, those students who could greatly learn the material with a visual support are forced to listen to the explanations of the teacher and immediately answer his questions; Those students who are much more efficient in the afternoon are forced to come to school in the morning, those who were weakly prepared intellectually (and maybe spiritually), forced to follow the pace and methods designed for more advanced students (so-called average ), guys who are incomprehensible to some life principles, the foundations adopted in a civilized society often begin to comprehensively, etc. That is why, they say supporters of this approach (Dunn, Griggs), it is necessary to rely on and develop the individual styles of the cognitive activity of each student. In such a school, students are given the opportunity to work individually on soft carpets or in groups of specialized tables for group work. It uses both well-structured lessons under the guidance of the teacher and work in small groups (pairs, three, etc.), computer technologies are used and, most importantly, independent individual activity. The main objects requiring the explanations of the teacher and its leadership are repeated in the morning and in the afternoon. Students can, therefore, attend lessons, rent speakers, work on projects at a convenient time for them, in convenient pace and form for them, consistent with their biological rhythm, psychological peculiarities. School of Individual Learning Style The focus, unlike the traditional school, pays the involvement of each student into active cognitive activities, the formation of the ability to solve problems, the development of the creative abilities of students, the disclosure of their spirituality. Finally, such a school pays great attention to training in collaboration in small groups. It must be admitted that with all the attractiveness of such an organization of training, according to Dunn and Griggs, who visited 10 such schools, to speak with confidence about the high efficiency of such training can be very careful. The fact is that students of such schools really showed very high academic knowledge, some became winners national competitions. Students themselves very highly responded about such an approach to learning, they are literally in love with their school. However, here more than in other approaches to learning, the role of a teacher, his professionalism is important, the ability to very firmly determine and take into account individual differences in students not only in academic knowledge, but also psychologically. It is necessary to prepare training materials, plans, programs accordingly, all this requires really very high professional skills, tact, certain personal qualities of the teacher. Perhaps for such schools the future. But so far it's just an ideal that, unfortunately, cannot be massive.

The cultivation of a contemporary Pestalocci, a German religious philosopher and teacher F. Schleiermaker (1768-1834) tried to bring the nature of the child's development. Refusing to consider a person as a product of education, he saw the meaning of pedagogical activities in "security", accompanied by children, in choosing their surroundings and participation in the events occurring in their lives. For Shleyermar, the task of education was to maintain positive influences on the individual and social development of the child and countering negative influences.

Provide a person the possibility of a free manifestation of his spiritual essence sought, developing his pedagogical concept, follower Pestalozzi F. Frevel (1782-1852), defending the ideal of education of a free thoughtful, independent person. The task of upbringing, on Frebel, is to create conditions for the implementation of the spiritual principle, which is laid in each person from birth. It was Frequell that focused the great principle of humanistic pedagogy of the XIX century: "Come, we will live for our children!"

However, in practice, the process of the formation of a mass school in the West in the XIX century passed by no means under the sign of the implementation of the humanistic trend, which was increasingly intensified in the pedagogical theory. The ideas of IF were especially important for the nature of the mass school. Herbart (1778-1841). Herbart System - classic example authoritarian pedagogy, where the teacher appears as a subject, and the student is an object of education and training, where the system of means of managing the child (threat, supervision, orders, prohibition, punishment, etc.) is particularly carefully developed, where punishment is not physical Pain, and fear of it (frightening), where the lesson is rigidly regulated and special importance is attached to child learning, where the path to the formation of the child's personality lies through the development of its intellect, and verbal methods dominate. The herbard pedagogy in his essential features corresponded to the nature of the Company, which was formed in the West in the first half of the XIX century, so it intensively penetrated into the practice of the mass school.

In the middle of the XIX century, capitalist relations in Western Europe became comprehensive - it was formed that which can be called bourgeois civilization, an industrial type society. Changes were affected by the scope of education and education: during this period, the bourgeois mass school (both the average and the initial) and the associated pedagogical ideology

(involving orientation on an isolated individual trained and educated with the help of standard, identical for all methods and means that level individuality and including human in impersonal state order) Received widespread distribution.

The most consistently and frankly, this position was formulated by G. Hegel (1770-1831), which argued the need to suppress and alienate the personality for the sake of higher state purposes. In his opinion, scientific education, affecting the spirit of man, separates it from natural being, cuts out of the non-free sphere of feelings and deposits and makes thinking; Starting to realize their actions, the individual is released and due to this reaches the authorities over the immediate ideas and sensations. This freedom, by Hegel, is the formal basis of moral behavior.

Not only the formal school science, an alienating personality from itself, but also a military moistra, according to Hegel, contributes to the development of the Spirit, as it opposes natural laziness and scatleton and forces it to accurately fulfill other people's orders. Alienated with the help of a formal learning from himself, a person acquires the ability to learn any science alien to him, any unfamiliar skill. Through the alienation, the person is removed from the specific, exempt from its power and receives the ability to perceive the general, live in the interests of the state and society. It is impossible not to notice that Hegel absolutes the general and idealizes the alienating impact of the school order organized on the impersonal rationalistic laws.

In the middle of the XIX century, when a massive formation built almost in Hegel, it turns out that instead, in accordance with the Hegelian recipe, it is organically merged with a common, with state whole, the personality is hopelessly lost in it, loses together with the feeling of individual Uniqueness and meaning of their own existence. In the XIX century, the Socialists-Utopists were searched for a wide socio-pedagogical context in a wide socio-pedagogical context, followed by Marxists, worker and socialist figures. Attempts to preserve the individual principle of personality strengthened, save it from dissolving in an immense reality by appeal to irrationalism, to find rational-utilitarian paths of personality development (positivism).

Literature:

• 1. Readings on the history of foreign pedagogy. M., 1971.
• 2. Konstantinov N.A., Medynsky E.N., Shabaeva M.F. The history of pedagogy. M., 1982.
• 3. Essays of the history of school and pedagogy abroad. M., 1988.
• 4. Pedagogical heritage. Ya.A. Komensei, J. Locke, J.-zh. Rousseau, I.G. Pestozzi. M., vol. 2, 2008

The most important and main pedagogical idea of \u200b\u200bthe Great Swiss teacher is comprehensive harmonious identity development In the process of learning and education. This is the purpose of any educational institution, achieving this goal involves ensuring the unity of mental, moral and physical development and work preparation. IG Pestalozzi allocates and characterizes the components of education:

1. Intelligent elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of mental deposits, the independence of judgment and ownership of the skills of intellectual work.

2. Physical elementary education is a comprehensive development of human physical deposits, which is needed for "physical independence" and possession of "physical skills."

3. Moral elementary education, the purpose of which is the comprehensive development of the moral deposits necessary for "ensuring the independence of moral judgments and the attraction of certain moral skills". It implies the ability and desire to create good.

Only the unity of all parts of education provides harmonious development of human natural chambers, one-sided mental or physical development brings only harm. So, a person can see the world with light science and at the same time to create evil, to have "the unbridled force of intellect" in conjunction with the heartlessness, the thirst for wealth and the desire for violence.

Also, all the claims of a person on high morality, if its source is not love for people, faith, nobility, do not constitute true morality, but are only hypocrisy. Yet worse peoplehaving a "animal will to violence", which are achieved in the world in the name of their own greedy interests, these are "predators from morality." They generate a mass of "moral orals" that are not capable of any action limited by powerless benevolence.

Harmonious development of all natural Forces A person implies education in equilibrium, in harmony with himself.

The idea of \u200b\u200bnature appearance in training and education in understanding I.G. Pestalozzi is the development of the "strengths and chambers of the human heart, the human mind and human skills." Human nature itself determines the natural course of development. Indeed, it is naturally what the person captures, acts "in the aggregate on the heart, mind and hand."

Each of these natural forces is developing due to the exercise of "external feelings", body organs, acts of thinking. The need for exercises is laid in the man itself. "The eye wants to look, ear - hear, leg - walk, and the hand is enough. But also the heart - believe and love. The mind wants to think, "writes Pestalotzi in the Swan song. But if you do not lead these natural needs by giving them themselves, the development will go extremely slow. It is necessary to skill with the educator of the development of the departments and abilities of children.

At the same time, "the tutor puts new strengths and abilities to a person and inhales life in him," the educator only cares about the negative impact of the natural course of development, supports the efforts of the child, which he himself exhibits for its own development. The moral, mental and practical forces of a person "should be brought up within it." So, faith is strengthened due to their own conviction, and not due to reflections about it, love relies on the actions performed by love, and not on high words about her, thought - on their own thinking, and not for the assimilation of other people, thoughts. The beginning of the development of each part of the individual acts spontaneous desire to an individual. School, teacher facing the task of providing children with relevant means and materials for their activities.

Training methods I.G. Pestalozzi flow out of understanding them to education as a consistent development of the child by appropriate exercises, selected so as to ensure harmony in manifestation of natural deposits. Pestalotski allocated the simplest elements that considered the basis of training - this number, shape, word , and elementary learning should teach a child count, measure, own speech. The extensive exercise is carried out by the development of the natural deposit of the child. Exercises should be born with the study of objects, not words, with observation of objects. From here - the need for a lesson, but not for the sake of development of observation, but for the sake of mental education as a whole. The child is learning, develops due to sensory perception and its own experience, "getting impressions and enriching experiences." His experience should find a clear expression in words.

Learning, the child seizes by measuring the concept of form, due to the account, by the number by the development of speech - in a word. The content of elementary education and is reading, letter, arithmetic with the beginning of geometry, measurement, drawing, singing, in addition, some knowledge of geography, natural science. This extensive program first began to be carried out in school practice. A feature of learning was the gradual climbing from a simple - to complex, due to the decomposition of the subject of the subject on its simplest elements. Gradually, the old method of learning, which began with teaching rules, principles, general definitions, was supplanted. His place occupied observations of objects and exercises. The purpose of teaching was the development of students, and not the dogmatic memorization of the material. Pestozzci stood utions of educational ideas. "The main goal of the initial learning is not to give the knowledge of the student, but to develop and increase his mental forces," he argued in the Swan song.

IG Pestalozzi argued that relations are very important for school, which are established between the teacher and students. These relationships basically must have a teacher's love for children. Pestalotzi himself was a sample of such love, students and followers called him father.

One of the important tasks of Pedagogy I.G. Pestalotski is labor education. Conducting a whole day at school, children can be spinning and weaving, on the plot of land, each can handle their beds, care for animals. They study the processing of flax and wool, get acquainted with the best farms in the village and craft workshops. Such work will contribute to physical development and prepare for upcoming activities.

Pedagogical ideas I.G. Pestalotski found support and further development in the Western European pedagogy, and the experience of holding them in the institutions led by them, contributed to the widespread the famous teacher in the Western European states of the school practice. Since the Institute I.G. Pestalozzi in Burgdorf and Iverdon visited Teachers, students and many people who were interested in education issues, the ideas of the teacher began to spread widely and implemented in the practice of schools in other countries. There was a direction in pedagogy associated with the name I.G. Pestozzi.

Basic dates of life and activity:

1746 - Johann Heinrich Pestalotski was born in Zurich.

1769-1774 - Experiment in Nigoofe to conduct exemplary economy.

1775-1780 - the creation and activities of the "institutions for the poor" in Nagof.

1789 - work in a orphanage in the city of Stanza.

1800-1826 - Guide to Burgdorf and Iverdon educational institutions.

1827 - Johann Heinrich Pestalotzi died.

Main works:

1781-1787 - Lingard and Gertrude.

1801 - "How Gertrud teaches his children."

1826 - Swan Song.

7.3. Developing and educating training F.A. Dysterweg.One of the famous classic teachers of the XIX century is Friedrich Adojlf Dysterweg (1790 - 1866). He entered the history of pedagogy as a "teacher of German teachers," since he was the organizer and for a long time by the director of the teacher's seminary in Mönds and Berlin, who were preparing pedagogical personnel for the popular mass school.

In 1827 - 1866. published the pedagogical magazine "Rhine leaves ..." created four teacher societies, in 1848 he was elected Chairman of the Universal German Teacher Union, made suggestions on the reform at the time at the time of school, demanding separating it from the Church and universal learning children, the exercise of universal, Civil and national education.

The main pedagogical work of A. Disterweg - "Guide to the formation of German teachers" (1835). The book contains instructions. How the teacher can increase his professional level, which way to join the teaching of individual training items and what means to use for this.

More than 20 textbooks were written to the teacher (he was mainly in primary school education and educational guidelines for mathematics, german language, natural science, geography, astronomy. Books enjoyed broadly fame in Germany and throughout Europe.

The basis of the upbringing of Disterveg put three principles:

Ø The nature of education and education. This principle, he understood how the development in the pedagogical process of those good departments that are laid in a child from nature.

Ø The principle of amateur activities and the activity of children in the teaching and its own personal development.In modern pedagogy, he is interpreted as the creation of conditions in the pedagogical process for the formation and development of the child's constituent life position.

Ø Cultural education learning and education,that is, accounting in the pedagogical process of conditions and the level of culture of this time of the country, the Motherland, the student's family.

The implementation of these principles in pedagogical practice led to the development of fundamentally new learning ideas. Such in the pedagogical heritage of A. Disterweg are educational learning ideas.On their basis, he built 33 didactic rules, according to which the teacher should know the individual manifestations of his students, their features, level of development, the circle of interests and hobbies. Only knowing and considering all this can be learning "naturally", overcoming difficulties gradually about consistently.

The teacher was resolutely removed against students' training overloads: "The trouble is usually the fact that young teachers seek to teach students everything that they themselves know, in fact it is necessary to inform students only essential ... A bad teacher reports the truth, it teaches it to find it."

Special attention in the matters of didactics Disterveg addressed timely repetition of educational materialBut he looked at the repetition not as a simple memorization, a cramp, but a meaningful memorization of the most significant in the material studied. This not only makes it possible to firmly assimilate the content of the subject, some amount of knowledge, but contributes development of memory, and consequently, the mind.

Dysterweg indicated the need to teach the transition from a simple - to complex, from the close - to far away, from the unknown one - to the known one.However, Didakt warned from the mechanical application of these learning rules. After all, easy should intervene with difficult: the doctrine should not be easy, it is quite heavy work work and heart, total human organism. Often remote from students in time and space turns out to be very close, interesting and affordable, and close - difficult and difficult. It is necessary to encourage students, emphasized the teacher, to work independently, seeking work to become their second nature. The desire to carefully consider it carefully, to learn the educational material should be the need of a student, only in this case can we talk about the developing nature of training.

Most attention was paid to A. Dysterweg in his pedagogical work issues of school discipline. He expressed his negative attitude towards the use of punishment in pedagogical practice as a method of learning and upbringing. "We will not speak about the penalism measures better," he turned to teachers. - They are mostly useless and not needed, that is, according to the nature of the subject of learning. It is only necessary that the student worked at school willingly. There. Where it takes place, there may not be at all occasions of student disobedience. There, where this is not, it is constantly and unsuccessfullyinvent punishment. "

In all works by A. Disterweg, the thoughts of the art of learning and educating the teacher (pedagogical skills) in the successful solution of pedagogical problems. The skill of professional activity, he organically associated with the personal qualities of the teacher, but reasoned "not about the general qualities of the teacher teacher: his honesty, morality, etc., but only about the quality of the teacher who make training educational and fruitful." To such the most important qualities Related energy and liveliness, human strength, love for children and their pedagogical work.

One of the first "teachers of German teachers" was expressed about the pedagogical meaning external view Teachers, the manners of his behavior, pointing to the fact that the teacher assimilated "as many lives as possible! The latter lies not in infinite swinging with his hands, not in grimaces and facial expressions. This is a spiritual life that, of course, is also reflected on the face. On all appearance and gestures. " He advised teachers to take care of their appearance, on physical and spiritual health, organizing a healthy and rational lifestyle, as in many respects, according to the German teacher, the performance of the teacher is due to its physical health, good well-being, internal energy power.

It is noteworthy that A. Dierveg for the first time an attempt was made to allocate several levels of professional activities of the teacher. He pointed out that there are teachers who work in good faith, achieving good results in training and education, but there are also "ingenious virtuosos of pedagogical business", which are formed as professionals "with rare and happiest circumstances." Dysterureg did not analyze these circumstances, indicated only on individual factors for the development of a high level of professionalism of the teacher. The most important among them called the ability of the teacher to constant self-education, self-improvement.He called for teachers "Never stop" and emphasized that the teacher "until that time was able to form others while continues to work on his own education ... General, as a person and a citizen, and special, as teachers."

Pedagogical heritage F.A. Dysterware is studied in detail with modern educators, serves as an inexhaustible source of pedagogical ideas in different areas Pedagogical studies, pedagogical theory and practice.

7.4. Pedagogical theory I.F. Herbart.Famous German teacher, psychologist, philosopher Johann Friedrich Herbart. (1776- 1841) was among the admirers and followers of Pestalozzi, his work of Professor is associated with Gottingen and Köningsburg universities.

Having become acquainted with the works of I.G. Pestalotski, visiting the Burg-Dorf Institute (1800), he created his first pedagogical work, which was dedicated to the famous Swiss.

The pedagogical activity of the herbard began in his youth when he was an educator of children in the family of one Swiss aristocrat. Then, upon completion of the university education, he read lectures on psychology and pedagogy, led the seminary on the preparation of teachers. Having created an experienced school at the teacher's seminary, I taught schoolchildren to mathematics.

Herbart presented his pedagogical theory in works: "The total pedagogy derived from the goals of education" (1806), "Psychology Textbook" (1816), "Letters about the Psychology for Pedagogy" (1831), "Essay of Lectures on Pedagogy" (1835) . All of them differ rationality and are quite complex for perception.

In his pedagogical views, the Herbart was repelled from the pedagogical ideas of Pestozzi, but resolved a lot otherwise. So, he replenished the gap that remained in the reasoning of the Swiss teacher about how data the sensory perception can be recycled in ideas as knowledge can affect morality. Herbart believed that it was impossible to look at the human mind as a dead table, and complements I.G. Pestozzi, developing its psychological and pedagogical ideas. If Pestalozzi, relying on the idea of \u200b\u200bsensual perception, seeks to study the physical world, then Herbart did not consider this approach sufficient and aimed at creating a moral and aesthetic idea of \u200b\u200bthe world. Therefore, natural and scientific training (arithmetic, geography, natural science), he preferred classes with clean mathematics, classical languages \u200b\u200band literature.

Herbart brought his pedagogical ideas into a strictly logical system, substantiates their evidence, including psychological.

Consider the key psychological concepts of the theory of herbart. The soul (psyche) of a person, not filled with birth, has one important property - it comes into relationships with environmental through nervous system. Thanks to this, the first representations obtained from sensual perceptions appear in the mind, and concepts are formed from complex interactions of representations, judgments and reflections are developing. Presentations of children proceed from two sources: from a practical (experienced) contact with nature and from communication with people. The teacher must, expanding the life experience of the child, develop knowledge, and expanding social communication - develop feelings. From here followed two important outputs:

1. The main ability of the soul is the ability of assimilation (merger).

2. Home and defining force, forming a soul and character, - upbringing.

The process of upbringing Herbart divided into three sections: management, training and moral education.

The goals and objectives of educating the teacher and the philosopher derived from philosophy and ethics.

The purpose of the upbringing was determined as follows: "All the case of education can be summarized in the concept of" morality ". The term "virtue" expresses the whole goal of upbringing. " Virtue is understood as the "idea of \u200b\u200binternal freedom", developing in humans in the process of their accumulation of experience. Such experience causes an approval or disapproval of observed phenomena and judgment at the level of taste. Therefore, Herbart called them aesthetic ideas (he called his philosophical treatise "aesthetic understanding of the Universe as the main purpose of education"). Such ideas include "suitable, beautiful, moral, fair," that is, everything that is like in the process of contemplation. The main goal of upbringing is to develop these preferences through experience, conversation and education.

Herbart brought virtue to five moral ideas. The main among them is the idea internal freedom, harmony of will and wishi. The affair is to form a character that "in the vital struggle would remain unshakable" and was based on a strong moral belief and will.

The tasks of the upbringing were identified by the German teacher-classic so: the enrichment of the soul by presentations or experience on the basis of ideas, the development of ideas and motives of behavior.

Morality depends on goodwill and knowledge, and they, in turn, from the enlightenment of a person or ideas developed from the initial ideas. Will and action (behavior) arise from desire, or motivation. Hence the result, to which Herbart came: "Doing, which in front of himself discovers the student, choosing good and rejecting evil, is, and nothing else, there is an education of character." The actions of the teacher at the same time are limited, since the choice makes the student himself and completes it with his actions, the teacher cannot "pour into the soul of his student" the force capable of making it to act. But it creates such conditions in which the result will be the virtue of the student, all the efforts of the teacher should be sent to this main goal.

One of the founders of the didactics of primary learning, the Swiss teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalotski (1746-1827), who graduated from the two courses of the Collegiate Carolinum, led active educational activities, organized a number of shelters for children from the poorest environment, where orphans lived and studied. IG Pestalotski was the author of the works, in which his pedagogical ideas were reflected: "Lingard and Gertruda", "as Gertrud teaches their children," "Letter to a friend about staying in the station", "Swan song".

Developing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe relationship of education, learning and development, the teacher proceeded from the recognition of the decisive role of education in the formation of the child's personality from the moment of his birth. The essence of developing and educating learning was expressed by I.G. Pestalotski in his theory of "elementary education", which was intended for the initial learning step. Elementary education implies such an organization in which the simplest elements are allocated in objects of knowledge and activities, which allows you to constantly move from simple to more and more complex, bringing knowledge of children to possible perfection. The teacher allocates the following simple elements of cognitive activity: number ( simple element Numbers - unit), shape (the simplest element of the form - line), the names of objects designated by words (the simplest element of the word is sound).

The purpose of learning I.G. Pestalocci determines how the excitement of the mind of children to active activity, the development of their cognitive abilities, the development of the ability to logically think and briefly express the essence of the learned concepts. Thus, the method of "elementary education" is a certain system of exercises for the development of the abilities of the child. Pestalozzi developed this technique, guided by the following ideas:

1) a child from birth has sharpets, internal potential forces who are typical of the desire for development;

2) the multilateral and diverse activities of children in the learning process - the basis for the development and improvement of the internal forces, their mental development;

3) the activity of the child in cognitive activity is a necessary condition for the assimilation of knowledge, more perfect knowledge of the world. Such developing and educating training should contribute to the transition of children from indiscriminate and vague impressions to clear concepts.

Developing the idea of \u200b\u200bdeveloping learning and elementary education, the teacher became one of the founders of formal education: the subjects studied were considered to them more as a means of developing abilities than as a means of acquiring knowledge.

The theory of elementary formation Pestaloci includes physical, labor, moral, mental education. All these parties are invited to implement in cooperation to ensure the harmonious development of a person.

In school, children, in his opinion (Roman "Lingard and Gertruda"), spend a whole day for spinning and weaving machines; At school there is a plot of land, and each child processes its beds, cares for animals. Children study flax and wool processing, get acquainted with the best farms in the village, as well as with handicraft workshops. During work, as well as in her watches, the teacher leads classes with children, teaches their diploma, account, other vital knowledge. Pestalotski emphasized the importance of labor education for the formation of a person. He sought to "warm the heart and develop the mind of children."

Pestalozzi gave the work of children wide educational significance. He pointed out that "Labor teaches to despise words torn away from the case," helps to produce such qualities as accuracy, truthfulness, contributes to the creation of the right relationship between children and adults and children themselves.

Properly organized physical work of children promotes the development of their mind and moral forces.

Pestalozzi suggested to create a special "alphabet of the skills", which would contain physical exercises in the field of simplel types of work: beat, wear, throw, push, wave, fight, etc. Mastering such an alphabet, the child could comprehensively develop his physical strength and At the same time, master the main labor skills necessary for any special, professional activity. Pestalotzi sought to prepare children of workers to the upcoming work "in the industry", in industrial enterprises.

Moral education. Pestalotski believed that the main task of upbringing was to form a harmoniously developed man who should take a useful participation in society in the future. Morality is produced in a child by constant exercises in affairs that benefit others. The simplest element of moral education is, according to Pestalozzi, the love of a child to the mother, which arises on the basis of satisfying the daily needs of the children's body.

The family is laid the foundations of the moral behavior of the child. His love for mother gradually applies to other family members. "Father's house," the Pestalozzi exclaims, "you are a school of morals."

The further development of the child's moral forces should be carried out at school, in which the teacher's relationships to children are built on the basis of his deceic love.

The school of the child's social relationship is greatly expanding, and the task of the teacher is to organize them on the basis of the active love of schoolboy to everyone with whom it needs to come into close relationships. His social ties, increasingly expanding, should lead to the fact that he is aware of himself as part of society and will spread his love for all humanity.

Pestalozzi preferred the "live feeling of every virtue to conversation about her." He insisted that the moral behavior of children is formed not by moraling, but thanks to the development of moral feelings and the creation of moral inclinations. He also considered an important exercise of children in moral actions that demand composure and excerpts from them, form their will.

Moral education in Pestalotzi is closely related to religious. Criticizing the ritual religion, Pestalotzi speaks of the natural religion, which he understands as the development of high moral feelings.

The ratio of Pestalotzi to morality and religion is the testimony of its idealistic worldview and social bourgeois limitations. Calling for educators to love and humanity, he does not think about raising in children of protest against public injustice, against the chambers of evil, the oppressants of the people.

Mental education. The teaching of the Pestozzi on mental education is rich and meaningful. Based on its basic idea of \u200b\u200bhuman harmonious development, he closely connects mental education with moral education and puts forward a demand for educating learning.

Pestalotski views on mental education are also determined by his gnoseological concept, which has already been indicated, is a statement that the process of cognition begins with sensual perceptions processed by consciousness with a priori ideas.

Pestalotzi believes that all training should be based on observation and experience and rise to conclusions and generalizations. As a result of observations, the child receives visual, auditory and other sensations that the thought and the need awaken in it.

The person believed Pestalotski, the ideas about the outside world are first unclear and unclear, it is necessary to streamline and clarify them, bring to clear concepts, to make out of "disorderly - certain, from certain - clear and clear - obvious." Education, firstly, contributes to the accumulation of a student based on his sensual experience of knowledge of knowledge, and secondly, develops his mental abilities. It is necessary to "intensively increase the forces of the mind, and not only extensively enriched with ideas."

18 years old Pestalotski dedicated his experience and literary work. In 1781, he finishes and publishes his famous pedagogical novel "Lingard and Gertruda". This novel was a great success, since in it the author wanted to show how to rebuild the life of peasants on new foundations. This novel depicts the life of the village in Switzerland at that time when the age-old foundations of the feudal system began to collapse, the manufactory was already widespread. Under these conditions, the Swiss peasantry experienced a sharp process of infringement of labor farms. Pestalotski shows in his novel 3 main groups of peasantry: wealthy farms; Medium and ruined farms.

The main heroine of the novel is a reasonable peasant of Gertruda, a teacher, the pastor and a landowner with the united efforts seeking the peasants to improve their financial situation, establish patriarchal relationships and lead a pious lifestyle. Gertruda showed an example of the management of the rational system of the economy and combined the training of their children with their labor. The teacher led to school on a sample of Gertruda. Thus, in the Lingard and Gertrud novel, Pestalotski outlined the way to the peasants and at the same time showed that each mother should be able to train children,

The novel was a great success. It was translated into other languages. The idealization of the landowner is clearly expressed in the novel. But the main content of the novel reflected the aspirations not only Pestalozzi. Dreams of the possible improvement of the life of workers worried the minds of the entire advanced bourgeois integence of that time.

The Legislative Assembly of the French Republic in 1792 awarded Pestalotski for the Roman "Lingard and Gertruda" and for its outstanding pedagogical activities by the title of "French Citizen".

Johann Heinrich Pestozzi (1746-1827) - Swiss teacher, one of the founders of the didactics of primary learning. Early lost his father and raised his mother. At school was considered an unable student and was the subject of mockery of comrades. Entering the university, saw himself by theologian, but soon thought about the needs of the people, how to help him. To get closer to people, decided to engage in jurisprudence, but in the end became an agronomist. In the worldview of Pestalotski we go French enlighteners, mainly Zh.zh. Rousseau, combined with the theories of German philosophers idealists Labitsa, I. Kanta, I.G. Fichte and others. Treatise Rousseau "Emil, or about the upbringing" produced an indelible impression on Pestalozzi.
Possessing a soft character, sensitive and responsive to human grief, Pestalotski emotionally perceived the world around. After graduating from the university, he acquired a small estate of Nigiof. There, he was going to commit some transformations in the field of agriculture and to introduce the surrounding peasants to them. However, Pestalozzi did not have abilities to the economic case, its experiments did not give the expected results and significantly undermined the financial situation. At that time, he came to the conviction that peasant children need most of all in his help. Thanks to the support of the local community and good people, Pestalotski collected about 50 children who selflessly gave all the strength and material resources, teaching them in the summer field work, and in winter - craft. But this undertaking has been postgraduated. As soon as the peasant children received decent clothes, the parents led them and took themselves the money they earned. Pestalotski closed school, since he did not have enough money for her content. In 1780, he wrote a small essay called "Leisure of the Hermit", which presented a collection of aphorisms. It was encountered by readers cool. But it was in it that the teacher outlined his views, which was developing subsequently.
In 1781, another essay of Pestalozzi was published - "Lingard and Gertruda, a book for the people" (1781), which was a great success. This is a story about how simple, smart and respected in his village, a peasant, skillfully raising his children, convinced one-bedroom to open school in the village. From indefinite and fervent dreams, Pestalotzi moves to the harsh prose of life: "Shrink the hole from which the folk disrespects flow" can only raise the level of formation of the people. But since the people do not have neither funds nor forces for arrangement large number Schools, then education, on the conviction of the teacher, must be transferred to mothers. To facilitate this task, mothers need to be provided with a special leadership, which was written by Pestalozzi.

Pedagogical ideas of Johann Herrich Pestalotzi

In 1798, he returned to pedagogical activities. The Swiss government, some members of which sympathized with Pestadozzi, provided him with a dilapidated war building Usulongov in the station, in which the teacher gathered children left after the war without supervision. Without having helpers, he himself coped with a hundred not the most exemplary children: he was the head of the educational institution, a teacher, treasurer, janitor and even a nurse in one person. To overcome all the difficulties, he was helped by heart and mental responsiveness. Senior children soon became his assistants. But the pedagogical activity of Pestalozzi was unexpectedly interrupted: the French troops monastic premises needed under the hospital, and the school was closed.
Some time later, Pestalozzi managed to open school in Burgdorf (1800-1804), which was subsequently translated into Iverdon (1805-1825). There, his fame reached the highest point. Educational institutions attended many people who wanted to be convinced of the feasibility of Pestalotzi pedagogical techniques. The Russian emperor Alexander I also became interested in his activities, saw him and treated him very graciously. Last years Life brought Pestalotski big sadness: his assistants in Iverdon were overviewed. He was forced to leave the school based on them and soon died in his estate Nigigof.
Pestalozzi believed that education should be naturally like: it is intended to develop spiritual and human nature inherent in human nature and physical power In accordance with the pretentious child, the desire for comprehensive activities. This development is carried out through consecutive and systematic exercises - at the beginning in the family, then at school. The theory of elementary formation Pestalocci includes mental, moral, physical and labor education, which are carried out in close connection and interaction to ensure the harmonic development of a person. The idea of \u200b\u200bdeveloping learning k.d. nominated by the Swiss teacher Ushinsky called the "great discovery." Pestalocci developed a methodology for teaching children a bill, measurement and speech, significantly expanded the content of primary training, including the basics of geometry and geography, drawing, singing, gymnastics. The teacher advocated the creation of such a school, which, according to N.K. Krupskaya, "... I would satisfy the needs of the masses, would be eagerly taken by them and would be largely creating their own hands."
The Swiss teacher remained in history as the author of numerous pedagogical works, of which the main IIdcti enrolled by the world. "Ligard and Gertrude. "As Gertrude teaches his children" (1801), "Letter to a friend about staying in the station" (1799), "Swan Song" (1826). In 1792 Legislative Assembly The French Republic of 11stalli was awarded the title "Citizen of the French Republic".

Johann Heinrich Pestozzi

Pestalotski Johann Heinrich (1746/1827) - Swiss teacher. He marked the beginning of the theory of primary learning, in which the pedagogy was tied with psychology, and training - with education and development. Suggested a number of new ideas in the theory of joining training and productive labor. It belongs to the works: "Lingard and Gertrud" (1781/1887), "As Gertrud teaches his children" (1801), "Swan song" (1826) and others.

Gurieva T.N. New literary dictionary / so-called Gurieva. - Rostov N / D, Phoenix, 2009, p. 217.

Johann Heinrich Pestalocci (1746-1827) is the largest Swiss teacher-Democrat, the theorist of the People's School, which has enormous influence on the development of pedagogical theory and school practice in many countries of the world.

Under the influence of the ideas of Rousseau, he dedicated his life to finding ways to improve the position of the people. He put the main hopes on properly organized education and training of children, on the unity of mental, moral and physical education in combination with the preparation for work and participation in it. Pestalozzi, a manist-teacher, was faithful to his democratic ideals. He dedicated his pedagogical theory from the main goal of the upbringing, which he saw in the development of all the natural abilities of the child, taking into account his individual characteristics and age. At the same time, education should form from a child not just a harmoniously developed individual, but a worker - a member of the human community.

Developing the problems of didactics, Pestalotski put forward a fruitful idea of \u200b\u200belementary education, according to which children in the learning and education process should absorb the main elements of knowledge, morality, labor techniques. We can say that Pestalotski thus made an attempt to deliver and solve one of the most important didactic problems - the problem of selection of education, which should gradually become more complicated, corresponding to the steps of the individual and age development of children.

The great merit of Pestalotzi is to develop the principle of visibility of learning, in the desire to associate sensual perception with the development of thinking. The most important task of learning Pestalozzi considered the development of logical thinking, cognitive abilities, the ability to logically and consistently express their thoughts, formulate concepts. Training, according to Pestalozzi, must act developing, encourage children to self-conceiving.

Based on its ideas of educational training and elementary education, Pestalotzi laid the beginning of the scientific development of the methodology of the initial learning native language, arithmetic, geometry, geography.

Biographical reference is quoted by ed.: Readings on the history of foreign pedagogy. Cost. A.I. Piskunov. 2 ed. Pererab. M., 1981, p. 275.

Other biographical materials:

Kodjaspirova G. M., Kodjaspirov A. Yu. Swiss teacher-Democrat ( Kodjaspirova G. M., Kodjaspirov A. Yu. Pedagogical Dictionary: For the stud. Higher. and media. Ped. studies. establishments. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2001).

Works:

SAMTLICHE WERKE.HRSG. Von A. Buchenau, e. SPRANGER, N. STETTBACHER, E. Dejung, BD 1-17 - a, 18-21, 23, 25, V.- LPZ.- ZURICH, 1927-73;

SAMTLICHE BRIEFE, HRSG. Von Pestalozzianum und Von Der Zentralbibliothek in Zurich, BD 1-13, Zurich, 1946-71; in rus. per .- Film Pedagogical works. Ed. n. f. Shabchava. [Podg. Text, introductory article and approx. V. A. Rotenberg], vol. 1-3, M., 1961 - 65.

Ausgewählte Werke, HRSG. v. O.Boldeman, BD. 1-3. V., 1962-64;

Literature:

Krupskaya N.K., Pestalotzi, pedagogical writings, vol. 1, M., 1957;

Krupskaya N. K., to the chapter on Pestalozzi, ibid., Vol. 4, M., 1959;

Pinkeevich A. P., Medinsky E. N., I. G. Pestalotski. His life, teaching and influence on Russian pedagogy, M., 1927;

Pinkeevich A. P., I. G. Pestalozzi, M., 1933;

Rothenberg V. A., Pedagogical activity I. G. Pestalotski, "Soviet pedagogy", 1952, No. 3;

Rotenberg V. A., Pestalotzi on the combination of training with difficulty and preparations for activities in industry, there, 1962, No. 7.

Zilberfarb I. I., the outstanding Gelvetsky Democrat Pestalozzi, in the collection: from the history of public movements and international relations, M., 1957.