☰

Natural material is plastic when moistened 5. Natural and artificial materials for stoves and fireplaces! Practical uses of clay

Clay is a fine-grained sedimentary rock, dust-like when dry, plastic when moistened.

Origin of clay.

Clay is a secondary product formed as a result of the destruction of rocks during the weathering process. The main source of clay formations are feldspars, the destruction of which under the influence of atmospheric agents forms silicates of the group of clay minerals. Some clays are formed by the local accumulation of these minerals, but most are sediments from water flows that accumulate at the bottom of lakes and seas.

In general, according to their origin and composition, all clays are divided into:

- sedimentary clays, formed as a result of the transfer to another place and deposition there of clayey and other products of the weathering crust. Based on their origin, sedimentary clays are divided into marine clays, deposited on the seabed, and continental clays, formed on the mainland.

Among marine clays there are:

  • Coastal- are formed in coastal zones (turbulence zones) of seas, open bays, and river deltas. They are often characterized by unsorted material. They quickly change into sandy and coarse-grained varieties. Replaced by sandy and carbonate deposits along the strike. Such clays are usually interbedded with sandstones, siltstones, coal seams and carbonate rocks.
  • Lagoon- are formed in sea lagoons, semi-enclosed with a high concentration of salts or desalinated. In the first case, the clays are heterogeneous in granulometric composition, insufficiently sorted and wind together with gypsum or salts. Clays from desalinated lagoons are usually finely dispersed, thin-layered, and contain inclusions of calcite, siderite, iron sulfides, etc. Among these clays there are fire-resistant varieties.
  • Offshore- are formed at a depth of up to 200 m in the absence of currents. They are characterized by a uniform granulometric composition and large thickness (up to 100 m or more). Distributed over a large area.

Among the continental clays there are:

  • Deluvial- characterized by a mixed granulometric composition, its sharp variability and irregular layering (sometimes absent).
  • Ozernye with a uniform granulometric composition and finely dispersed. All clay minerals are present in such clays, but kaolinite and hydromicas, as well as minerals of hydrous oxides Fe and Al, predominate in clays of fresh lakes, and minerals of the montmorillonite group and carbonates predominate in clays of salt lakes. Lake clays include the best varieties of fire-resistant clays.
  • Proluvial, formed by temporary flows. Characterized by very poor sorting.
  • River- developed in river terraces, especially in the floodplain. Usually poorly sorted. They quickly turn into sands and pebbles, most often non-layered.

Residual - clays resulting from the weathering of various rocks on land, and in the sea as a result of changes in lavas, their ashes and tuffs. Down the section, residual clays gradually transform into parent rocks. The granulometric composition of residual clays is variable - from fine-grained varieties in the upper part of the deposit to uneven-grained ones in the lower part. Residual clays formed from acidic massive rocks are not plastic or have little plasticity; Clays formed during the destruction of sedimentary clay rocks are more plastic. Continental residual clays include kaolins and other eluvial clays. In the Russian Federation, in addition to modern ones, ancient residual clays are widespread - in the Urals, in the West. and Vost. Siberia (there are also many of them in Ukraine) - of great practical importance. In the mentioned areas, clays predominantly montmorillonite, nontronite, etc. appear on basic rocks, and on medium and acidic rocks - kaolins and hydromica clays. Marine residual clays form a group of bleaching clays composed of minerals of the montmorillonite group.

Clay is everywhere. Not in the sense - in every apartment and plate of borscht, but in every country. And if there are not enough diamonds, yellow metal or black gold in some places, then there is enough clay everywhere. Which, in general, is not surprising - clay, sedimentary rock, is a stone worn by time and external influences to the state of powder. The last stage of stone evolution. Stone-sand-clay. However, the last one? And sand can form into stone - golden and soft sandstone, and clay can become brick. Or a person. Who's got some luck?

The clay is colored by the creator stone and salts of iron, aluminum and similar minerals that happen to be nearby. Various organisms reproduce, live and die in clay. This is how red, yellow, blue, green, pink and other colored clays are obtained.

Previously, clay was mined along the banks of rivers and lakes. Or they dug a hole specifically for it. Then it became possible not to dig the clay yourself, but to buy it from a potter, for example. During our childhood, we dug out ordinary red clay ourselves, and bought noble white clay in artists’ stores or, especially pure clay, in a pharmacy. Now a nice little shop selling cosmetics will certainly have clay. True, not entirely in its pure form, but mixed with various detergents, moisturizers and nourishing agents.

Our land is rich in clay. Roads and paths cut into loamy soil become sources of dust in the heat, and in slush they become pure mud. Clay dust covered the traveler from head to toe and added to the housework of the housewives whose house stood by the road. Surprisingly, there was no less dust near roads covered with asphalt. True, he turned from red to black. Ledum, thickly mixed with clay, not only prevents a pedestrian from walking and a wheel from moving, but also, depending on the mood, you don’t mind swallowing a boot or a jeep.

Clay consists of one or more minerals of the kaolinite group (derived from the name of the locality Kaolin in the People's Republic of China (PRC)), montmorillonite, or other layered aluminosilicates (clay minerals), but may also contain sand and carbonate particles. As a rule, the rock-forming mineral in clay is kaolinite, its composition is: 47% silicon (IV) oxide (SiO 2), 39% aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3) and 14% water (H 2 0). Al2O3 And SiO2- constitute a significant part of the chemical composition of clay-forming minerals.

The diameter of clay particles is less than 0.005 mm; Rocks consisting of larger particles are usually classified as loess. Most clays are gray in color, but there are clays in white, red, yellow, brown, blue, green, purple and even black. The color is due to impurities of ions - chromophores, mainly iron in valence 3 (red, yellow) or 2 (green, bluish).

Dry clay absorbs water well, but when wet it becomes waterproof. After kneading and mixing, it acquires the ability to take different shapes and retain them after drying. This property is called plasticity. In addition, clay has a binding ability: with powdery solids (sand) it produces a homogeneous “dough” that also has plasticity, but to a lesser extent. Obviously, the more sand or water admixtures in the clay, the lower the plasticity of the mixture.

According to the nature of the clays, they are divided into “fat” and “lean”.

Clays with high plasticity are called “fat” because when soaked they give a tactile sensation of a fatty substance. “Fatty” clay is shiny and slippery to the touch (if you take such clay on your teeth, it slips), and contains few impurities. The dough made from it is tender. Bricks made from such clay crack when dried and fired, and to avoid this, so-called “lean” substances are added to the mix: sand, “lean” clay, burnt brick, potter’s scrap, sawdust and etc.

Clays with low plasticity or non-plasticity are called “lean”. They are rough to the touch, with a matte surface, and when rubbed with a finger, they easily crumble, separating earthy dust particles. “Skinny” clays contain a lot of impurities (they crunch on the teeth); when cut with a knife, they do not produce shavings. Bricks made from “lean” clay are fragile and crumbly.

An important property of clay is its relationship to firing and, in general, to elevated temperatures: if soaked clay in air hardens, dries and is easily wiped into powder without undergoing any internal changes, then at high temperatures chemical processes occur and the composition of the substance changes.

At very high temperatures, clay melts. The temperature of melting (beginning of melting) characterizes the fire resistance of clay, which is not the same for its different varieties. Rare types of clay require colossal heat for firing - up to 2000°C, which is difficult to obtain even in factory conditions. In this case, there is a need to reduce fire resistance. The melting temperature can be reduced by adding the following substances (up to 1% by weight): magnesia, iron oxide, lime. Such additives are called fluxes (fluxes).

The color of the clays is varied: light gray, bluish, yellow, white, reddish, brown with various shades.

Minerals contained in clays:

  • Kaolinite (Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O)
  • Andalusite, disthene and sillimanite (Al2O3 SiO2)
  • Halloysite (Al2O3 SiO2 H2O)
  • Hydrargillite (Al2O3 3H2O)
  • Diaspore (Al2O3 H2O)
  • Corundum (Al2O3)
  • Monothermite (0.20 Al2O3 2SiO2 1.5H2O)
  • Montmorillonite (MgO Al2O3 3SiO2 1.5H2O)
  • Muscovite (K2O Al2O3 6SiO2 2H2O)
  • Narkite (Al2O3 SiO2 2H2O)
  • Pyrophyllite (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O)

Minerals contaminating clays and kaolins:

  • Quartz(SiO2)
  • gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O)
  • dolomite (MgO CaO CO2)
  • Calcite (CaO CO2)
  • Glauconite (K2O Fe2O3 4SiO2 10H2O)
  • Limonite (Fe2O3 3H2O)
  • Magnetite (FeO Fe2O3)
  • Marcasite (FeS2)
  • Pyrite (FeS2)
  • Rutile (TiO2)
  • Serpentine (3MgO 2SiO2 2H2O)
  • Siderite (FeO CO2)

Clay appeared on earth many thousands of years ago. Its “parents” are considered to be rock-forming minerals known in geology - kaolinites, spars, some varieties of mica, limestones and marbles. Under certain conditions, even some types of sand transform into clay. All known rocks that have geological outcrops on the surface of the earth are subject to the influence of the elements - rain, whirlwind storms, snow and flood waters.

Temperature changes day and night and heating of the rock by the sun's rays contribute to the appearance of microcracks. Water gets into the cracks that form and, freezing, breaks the surface of the stone, forming a large amount of tiny dust on it. Natural cyclones crush and grind dust into even finer dust. Where the cyclone changes its direction or simply dies down, huge accumulations of rock particles form over time. They are pressed, soaked in water, and the result is clay.

Depending on what rock the clay is formed from and how it is formed, it acquires different colors. The most common clays are yellow, red, white, blue, green, dark brown and black. All colors, except black, brown and red, indicate the deep origin of the clay.

The colors of clay are determined by the presence of the following salts in it:

  • red clay - potassium, iron;
  • greenish clay - copper, ferrous iron;
  • blue clay - cobalt, cadmium;
  • dark brown and black clay - carbon, iron;
  • yellow clay - sodium, ferric iron, sulfur and its salts.

Various colored clays.

We can also give an industrial classification of clays, which is based on the assessment of these clays based on a combination of a number of characteristics. For example, this is the appearance of the product, color, sintering (melting) interval, resistance of the product to sudden changes in temperature, as well as the strength of the product to impacts. Based on these characteristics, you can determine the name of the clay and its purpose:

  • china clay
  • earthenware clay
  • white-burning clay
  • brick and tile clay
  • pipe clay
  • clinker clay
  • capsule clay
  • terracotta clay

Practical use of clay.

Clays are widely used in industry (in the production of ceramic tiles, refractories, fine ceramics, porcelain-faience and sanitary ware), construction (production of bricks, expanded clay and other building materials), for household needs, in cosmetics and as a material for artistic works ( modeling). Expanded clay gravel and sand produced from expanded clay by annealing with swelling are widely used in the production of building materials (expanded clay concrete, expanded clay concrete blocks, wall panels, etc.) and as a heat and sound insulating material. This is a lightweight porous building material obtained by firing low-melting clay. It has the shape of oval granules. It is also produced in the form of sand - expanded clay sand.

Depending on the clay processing mode, expanded clay of different bulk density (volume weight) is obtained - from 200 to 400 kg/M3 and higher. Expanded clay has high heat and noise insulation properties and is used primarily as a porous filler for lightweight concrete, which has no serious alternative. Expanded clay concrete walls are durable, have high sanitary and hygienic characteristics, and expanded clay concrete structures built more than 50 years ago are still in use today. Housing built from prefabricated expanded clay concrete is cheap, high quality and affordable. The largest producer of expanded clay is Russia.

Clay is the basis of pottery and brick production. When mixed with water, clay forms a dough-like plastic mass suitable for further processing. Depending on the place of origin, natural raw materials have significant differences. One can be used in its pure form, the other must be sifted and mixed to obtain a material suitable for the manufacture of various trade items.

Natural red clay.

In nature, this clay has a greenish-brown color, which is given to it by iron oxide (Fe2O3), which makes up 5-8% of the total mass. When fired, depending on the temperature or type of oven, the clay acquires a red or whitish color. It kneads easily and can withstand heating of no more than 1050-1100 C. The great elasticity of this type of raw material allows it to be used for working with clay plates or for modeling small sculptures.

White clay.

Its deposits are found all over the world. When wet, it is light gray, and after firing it becomes whitish or ivory. White clay is characterized by elasticity and translucency due to the absence of iron oxide in its composition.

Clay is used to make dishes, tiles, and plumbing items, or for crafts made from clay plates. Firing temperature: 1050-1150 °C. Before glazing, it is recommended to work in an oven at a temperature of 900-1000 °C. (Firing of unglazed porcelain is called bisque firing.)

Porous ceramic mass.

Clay for ceramics is a white mass with a moderate calcium content and high porosity. Its natural color ranges from pure white to greenish-brown. Fires at low temperatures. Unfired clay is recommended, as for some glazes a single firing is not sufficient.

Majolica is a type of raw material made from fusible clay with a high content of white alumina, fired at a low temperature and covered with a glaze containing tin.

The name "majolica" comes from the island of Mallorca, where it was first used by the sculptor Florentino Luca de la Robbia (1400-1481). Later this technique was widespread in Italy. Ceramic trade items made from majolica were also called earthenware, since their production began in workshops for the production of earthenware.

Stone ceramic mass.

The basis of these raw materials are fireclay, quartz, kaolin and feldspar. When wet it has a black-brown color, and after wet firing it has an ivory color. When applying glaze, stone ceramics are transformed into a durable, waterproof and fireproof product. It can be very thin, opaque or in the form of a homogeneous, densely sintered mass. Recommended firing temperature: 1100-1300 °C. If it is disturbed, the clay may crumble. The material is used in various technologies for making commercial pottery items from lamellar clay and for modeling. Trade items made of red clay and stone ceramics are distinguished depending on their technical properties.

Clay for porcelain trade objects consists of kaolin, quartz and feldspar. It does not contain iron oxide. When wet it has a light gray color, after firing it is white. Recommended firing temperature: 1300-1400 °C. This type of raw material is elastic. Working with it on a pottery wheel requires high technical costs, so it is better to use ready-made forms. This is a hard, non-porous clay (with low water absorption - Ed.). After firing, the porcelain becomes transparent. Glaze firing takes place at a temperature of 900-1000 °C.

Various porcelain trade items, molded and fired at 1400°C.

Large-pored, coarse-grained ceramic materials are used for the manufacture of large-sized commercial items in construction, small-form architecture, etc. These varieties can withstand high temperatures and thermal fluctuations. Their plasticity depends on the content of quartz and aluminum (silica and alumina - Ed.) in the rock. The overall structure contains a lot of alumina with a high chamotte content. The melting point ranges from 1440 to 1600 °C. The material sinteres well and shrinks slightly, so it is used to create large objects and large-format wall panels. When making artistic objects, the temperature should not exceed 1300°C.

This is a clay mass containing an oxide or colorful pigment, which is a homogeneous mixture. If, penetrating deep into the clay, part of the paint remains suspended, then the even tone of the raw material may be disrupted. Both colored and ordinary white or porous clay can be purchased in specialized stores.

Masses with colored pigment.

Pigments- These are inorganic compounds that color clay and glaze. Pigments can be divided into two groups: oxides and colorants. Oxides are a naturally occurring basic material that forms among the rocks of the earth's crust, is purified and atomized. The most commonly used are: copper oxide, which takes on a green color in the oxidizing firing environment; cobalt oxide, which produces blue tones; iron oxide, which gives blue tones when mixed with glaze, and earth tones when mixed with clay. Chromium oxide gives the clay an olive green color, magnesium oxide gives it brown and purple tones, and nickel oxide gives it a grayish-green color. All these oxides can be mixed with clay in a proportion of 0.5-6%. If their percentage is exceeded, the oxide will act as a flux, lowering the melting point of the clay. When painting trade items, the temperature should not exceed 1020 °C, otherwise firing will not produce results. The second group is dyes. They are obtained industrially or by mechanical processing of natural materials, which represent a full range of colors. Dyes are mixed with clay in a proportion of 5-20%, which determines the light or dark tone of the material. All specialized stores have an assortment of pigments and dyes for both clay and engobes.

Preparing ceramic mass requires a lot of attention. It can be composed in two ways, which give completely different results. A more logical and reliable way: add dyes under pressure. A simpler and, of course, less reliable method: mix dyes into the clay by hand. The second method is used if there is no exact idea about the final coloring results or there is a need to repeat certain colors.

Technical ceramics.

Technical ceramics is a large group of ceramic trade items and materials obtained by heat treatment of a mass of a given chemical composition from mineral raw materials and other high-quality raw materials that have the necessary strength, electrical properties (high volumetric and surface resistivity, high electrical strength, small tangent angle dielectric losses).

Cement production.

To make cement, calcium carbonate and clay are first extracted from quarries. Calcium carbonate (approximately 75% of the quantity) is crushed and thoroughly mixed with clay (approximately 25% of the mixture). Dosing of starting materials is an extremely difficult process, since the lime content must correspond to the specified amount with an accuracy of 0.1%.

These ratios are defined in the specialized literature by the concepts of “calcareous”, “siliceous” and “alumina” modules. Since the chemical composition of the starting raw materials constantly fluctuates due to geological origin, it is easy to understand how difficult it is to maintain a constant modulus. In modern cement plants, computer control in combination with automatic analysis methods has proven itself well.

Properly composed sludge, prepared depending on the chosen technology (dry or wet method), is introduced into a rotary kiln (up to 200 m long and up to 2-7 m in diameter) and fired at a temperature of about 1450 °C - the so-called sintering temperature. At this temperature, the material begins to melt (sinter), it leaves the kiln in the form of more or less large lumps of clinker (sometimes called Portland cement clinker). Firing occurs.

As a result of these reactions, clinker materials are formed. After leaving the rotary kiln, the clinker enters the cooler, where it is sharply cooled from 1300 to 130 °C. After cooling, the clinker is crushed with a small addition of gypsum (maximum 6%). The size of cement grains ranges from 1 to 100 microns. It is better illustrated by the concept of “specific surface area”. If we sum up the surface area of ​​the grains in one gram of cement, then, depending on the grinding thickness of the cement, we get values ​​from 2000 to 5000 cm² (0.2-0.5 m²). The predominant part of cement in special containers is transported by road or rail. All overloads are performed pneumatically. A minority of cement products are delivered in moisture- and tear-resistant paper bags. Cement is stored at construction sites mainly in liquid and dry states.

Supporting Information.

Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher professional education

Kuzbass State Technical University

Test No. 1

Discipline: Materials Science

Completed by: Saigina M.V.

Kemerovo, 2011

1. A stone-like material in the form of a cubic sample, the edge of which is 6.5 cm, in an air-dry state has a mass of 495 g. Determine the thermal conductivity coefficient (approximate) and the possible name of the material

Volume of stone material sample:

Density of stone material sample:

Thermal conductivity coefficient of stone material:

Based on the data obtained, the stone material may be ordinary stone.

Answer:

2. Determine the porosity of cement stone with W/C = 0.62, if chemically bound water leaves 21% of the mass of cement, the density of which is 3.1 g/cm ³

1) Porosity is equal to:

Then:

Since then

According to the problem:

Then:

Answer:

. How do the properties of building materials change as they become wet? Give examples

The physical properties of a material characterize its behavior under the influence of physical factors that simulate the influence of the external environment and operating conditions of the material (action of water, high and low temperatures, etc.).

Properties associated with the effect of water on a material are called hydrophysical.

During their transportation, operation and storage, building materials are exposed to water or water vapor in the air. At the same time, their properties change significantly. Thus, when a material is moistened, its thermal conductivity increases, the average density changes, strength and other properties decrease, and the materials become heavier.

Cement, gypsum binders, pigments, glue, and other materials deteriorate from atmospheric moisture, and wet wood easily rots. Therefore, in all calculations it is necessary to take into account both the moisture content of the material and its ability to absorb moisture (water absorption and hygroscopicity). In all cases, during use and storage, porous building materials protect against moisture.

Hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity - properties of the surface of the material in relation to water. A measure of hydrophilicity is the binding energy of water molecules to the surface of the substance that makes up the material.

Hydrophilic (from the Greek Phileo - love) materials have a high degree of connection with water. On a hydrophilic surface, a drop of water spreads, and the capillary pores of hydrophilic substances are capable of drawing in water and raising it to a considerable height.

Hydrophobic (from the Greek Phobos - fear) materials have a low degree of connection with water. On their surface, drops of water almost do not spread, and water penetrates into the capillary pores to a minimum depth or does not penetrate at all.

To reduce the wettability of the material and its absorption of water, you can change the nature of its surface. Organosilicon substances are especially effective as water repellents. Thus, brick or concrete treated with a water-repellent organosilicon fluid (OSF) stops absorbing water, and moreover, water rolls off the surface of such water-repellent materials “like water off a duck’s back.”

Hygroscopicity- the ability of a material to change its moisture content when air humidity changes. As air humidity increases, the hygroscopic material absorbs and condenses water vapor on its surface, including on the surface of the pores. This process is called sorption. Hygroscopicity negatively affects the quality of building materials. Thus, when stored under the influence of air moisture, cement clumps and reduces its strength. Wood is very hygroscopic; moisture in the air causes it to swell and warp. To reduce the hygroscopicity of wooden structures and protect them from swelling, the wood is coated with oil-based paints and varnishes, and impregnated with polymers that prevent moisture from penetrating the material. Capillary suction- the property of porous-capillary materials to lift water through the capillaries. It is caused by surface tension forces that arise at the interface between solid and liquid phases. Capillary suction is characterized by the height of the water level in capillary materials and the amount of absorbed water and the intensity of suction. When the foundation is in wet soil, groundwater can rise through the capillaries and moisten the bottom of the building wall. To avoid dampness in the room, install a layer of waterproofing that separates the foundation from the wall. With an increase in capillary suction, the strength, resistance to chemical corrosion and frost resistance of building materials decreases.

Water absorption- the property of a material in direct contact with water to absorb and retain it in its pores. Water absorption is expressed by the degree of filling the volume of the material with water or the ratio of the amount of absorbed water to the mass of dry material.

In highly porous materials, water absorption by mass may exceed porosity, but water absorption by volume is always less than porosity, since water does not penetrate into very small pores and is not retained in very large ones. Water absorption of dense materials is zero (glass, steel, bitumen). Water absorption negatively affects other properties of materials: strength and frost resistance decrease, the material swells, its thermal conductivity increases and density increases.

Vapor permeability- the ability of a material to transmit water vapor in the presence of a difference in absolute air humidity (partial pressure of vapor in the air) on both sides of the material. Steam tends to pass through the material in the direction where its partial pressure is lower (usually from a warm room to a cold one). In some cases, high vapor permeability is needed (for example, the wall material must “breathe”); in others, the absence of vapor permeability is desirable (the thermal insulation should not become damp). The required degree of vapor permeability of the structure is achieved by the correct choice of materials and their relative arrangement in the structure.

Moisture release- the ability of a material to lose water in its pores. Moisture loss is determined by the amount of water evaporating from a material sample during a day at an air temperature of 20 °C and a relative humidity of 60%. Moisture loss is taken into account, for example, when drying building walls and caring for hardening concrete. In the first case, fast moisture transfer is desirable, and in the second, on the contrary, slow moisture transfer.

Water permeability b - the property of a material to pass water through itself under pressure. The degree of water permeability mainly depends on the porosity structure of the material. The more open pores and voids there are in a material, the greater its water permeability. Water permeability is characterized by the filtration coefficient (m/h) - the amount of water (in m3) passing through a material with an area of ​​1 m2, a thickness of 1 m in 1 hour with a difference in hydrostatic pressure at the wall boundaries of 9.81 Pa. The lower the filtration coefficient, the higher the waterproof grade of the material. Dense materials (granite, metals, glass) and materials with small closed pores (foam plastic, extruded polystyrene) are waterproof.

For waterproofing materials, it is important to assess not water permeability, but their water resistance, which is characterized either by the time after which water leaks under a certain pressure through a material sample (mastic, waterproofing), or by the maximum water pressure at which it does not yet pass through the material sample for test time (special mortars).

Frost resistance- the property of materials in a water-saturated state to withstand multiple cycles of alternating freezing and thawing without visible signs of destruction and without a significant decrease in strength and weight. Frost resistance is one of the main properties characterizing the durability of building materials in structures and structures. As the seasons change, some materials are subject to periodic freezing and thawing under normal atmospheric conditions and are destroyed. This is explained by the fact that the water in the pores of the material increases in volume by about 9...10% when frozen; Only very strong materials can withstand this ice pressure (200 MPa) on the pore walls.

Dense materials that have low porosity and closed pores have high frost resistance. Porous materials with open pores and, accordingly, high water absorption often turn out to be not frost-resistant.

4. The presence of which minerals in the composition of the stone gives it strength under impact loads

thermal conductivity Portland cement thermosite porosity

The property of a stone to collapse under impact load is called brittleness. The fragility of a stone material depends on the mineralogical composition, the nature of adhesion between individual minerals, the cementing substance, its condition, the structure and composition of the rock. The most fragile rocks are quartzite, some sandstones and igneous rocks of glassy structure. Fragility is a negative property of stone material used for road pavement. The inverse of brittleness is called toughness. Impact strength (or impact resistance) is the ability of a material to resist deformation or fracture upon impact. Impact resistance is important for stone materials that are subject to dynamic impacts during use in structures (for example, in road surfaces, floor coverings of industrial buildings, etc.).

When considering various representatives of minerals and rocks, the dependence of its properties on composition and structure was established for each of them.

The composition of rocks can be monomineral or polymineral. The qualitative characteristics of the former are mainly determined by the properties of their rock-forming mineral: the shape and size of its particles, structural defects, the type of chemical bond between particles, macro- and microporosity, etc.

Depending on the hardness of the minerals that make up the rock and largely determine its properties, stones are conventionally divided into three groups:

durable - quartzites, granites, gabbro;

medium strength - marble, limestone, travertine;

low strength - loose limestones, tuffs.

Quartzites, for example, share the properties of their rock-forming component quartz: high hardness, density and mechanical strength, low deformability (fragility), conchoidal fracture, high resistance to chemical weathering, etc.

In a similar way, the physical and mechanical properties of limestone are reflected in the characteristic features of rock-forming calcite: relatively easy solubility in water, low hardness and perfect cleavage, which are directly related to the reduced strength of these rocks. A similar influence of the mentioned properties of calcite is also manifested on the properties of marbles, which are metamorphosed varieties of limestone.

The negative influence of perfect cleavage of calcite on the strength of coarse-crystalline varieties of carbonate rocks of chemical origin is especially clearly visible. The decrease in their strength under mechanical influence is explained primarily by the destruction of calcite particles along the cleavage planes, as well as along the boundaries of their contact with each other.

With an increase in porosity, as well as with the appearance of leaks in contacts and some other structural defects that inevitably arise during the formation of monomineral rocks, their elastic and strength properties intensively decrease. Similar phenomena occur in polymineral rocks, when the quantitatively dominant rock-forming mineral has the most noticeable influence on the formation of certain properties of the rock. In igneous rocks, such as granites, with increasing content of quartz, which has a very high compressive strength (about 2000 MPa), mechanical strength increases. On the contrary, an increase in the amount of feldspars and mica in these rocks reduces their strength, usually up to 200 MPa for fine-grained and up to 120... 140 MPa for coarse-grained varieties. This is due to the fact that feldspar does not have a high compressive strength, similar to quartz (only about 170 MPa), and mica, with its inherent high cleavage and ability to form slip planes, contributes to the mechanical destruction of granite with the appearance of internal shear stresses. With a small amount of mica or its complete replacement with hornblende, granite acquires increased toughness and strength (including impact resistance). With increasing porosity in weathered and lignified granites, their strength quickly decreases, reaching 80... 60 MPa and below.

What is the raw material for the production of Portland cement and what is the technology for its production using the wet method?

Portland cement is the most common type of cement in modern construction. Portland cement is obtained by finely grinding clinker with gypsum (3-7%); It is allowed to introduce active mineral additives into the mixture (10-15%). Clinker is the product of firing (until completely sintered) an artificial raw material mixture consisting of approximately 75% calcium carbonate (usually limestone) and 25% clay. The firing of raw materials is carried out mainly in rotary kilns at 1450-1500°C. The properties of Portland cement depend mainly on the composition of the clinker and the degree of its grinding. The most important property of Portland cement is its ability to harden when interacting with water. It is characterized by a grade of Portland cement, determined by the compressive and bending strength of standard samples of cement-sand mortar after 28 days of hardening in wet conditions. The raw materials for the production of Portland cement are: calcareous, marly, clay rocks and various additives - slag, bauxite, etc. To obtain Portland cement, mainly carbonate and clay rocks are used. In addition, other natural types of raw materials, as well as artificial materials obtained in the form of waste from certain industries, can be used as raw materials. These include basic and acidic blast furnace slags, waste obtained from the production of alumina, belite (nepheline) sludge, waste from the processing of oil shale, ash, etc. In addition to the main raw materials, various corrective additives are also used in the production of Portland cement.

Production of cement using the “wet” method.

When preparing a raw material mixture using the wet method, in most cases, hard carbonate (limestone) and soft clayey (clay) components are used.

Limestone, as a harder material, is preliminarily crushed, and plastic clay is crushed in the presence of water in special apparatus (grinders or mixing mills). The final fine grinding to obtain a homogeneous mixture of limestone, clay slurry and corrective additives occurs in ball tube mills. Although the components are dosed into the mills in a given ratio, due to fluctuations in their chemical and mineralogical characteristics, it is not possible to obtain in the mill a slurry of composition that meets the established parameters. Therefore, a special technological operation is required to adjust its composition. After checking that the sludge composition meets the specified parameters, it is fed into a rotary kiln for firing, where the chemical reactions leading to the production of clinker are completed. The clinker is then cooled in a refrigerator and sent to a warehouse, where gypsum and active mineral additives are also stored. These components must first be prepared for grinding. Active mineral additives are dried to a moisture content of no more than 1%, and the gypsum is crushed. Combined fine grinding of clinker, gypsum and active mineral additives in ball tube mills ensures the production of high quality cement. From the mills, the cement enters silo-type warehouses. It is shipped either in bulk (in automobile and railway cement tankers) or packed in multi-layer paper bags.

When preparing sludge from two soft (chalk and clay) and two hard components (limestone and clay marl), the sequence of basic technological operations does not change. However, the peculiarities of the properties of crushed raw materials and the desire to choose the least energy-intensive technical solutions determine significant differences in the methods of grinding components.

When using two soft components, the technological scheme makes it possible to effectively use the ability of soft raw materials to dissolve in water. The use of powerful equipment for preliminary crushing of raw materials (for example, Hydrofol mills) makes it possible to avoid crushing them. However, at the pre-grinding stage, part of the raw material remains under-grinded, and the production of sludge must also be completed in a ball tube mill.

When using two solid components, the increased hardness of the clay raw material necessitates its preliminary crushing. Fine grinding of all components occurs in one stage in a ball mill. In an aqueous environment, the grinding of materials is facilitated and their mixing is improved. As a result, energy consumption is reduced (with soft raw materials, savings can reach 36 MJ/t of raw materials) and a more uniform mixture is obtained, which ultimately leads to an increase in the grade of cement. In addition, the wet method simplifies the transportation of sludge and improves sanitary and hygienic working conditions. The comparative simplicity of the wet method and the possibility of obtaining high-quality products from low-quality raw materials have led to its widespread use in the cement industry of our country. Currently, about 85% of clinker is produced using this method. At the same time, the introduction of a significant amount of water into the sludge (30-50% of the sludge mass) causes a sharp increase in heat consumption for its evaporation. As a result, heat consumption with the wet method (5.8-6.7 MJ/kg) is 30-40% higher than with the dry method. In addition, with the wet method, the dimensions and, accordingly, the metal consumption of furnaces increase.

6. How clays were formed in nature and what are their main mineral components

Clay is a fine-grained sedimentary rock, pulverized when dry, plastic when moistened.

Origin of clay.

Clays were formed as a result of weathering of igneous feldspathic rocks. The process of rock weathering consists of mechanical destruction and chemical decomposition. Mechanical decomposition occurs as a result of exposure to variable temperature, water and wind, chemical decomposition occurs as a result of the action of various reagents, such as water and carbon dioxide on feldspar, when the mineral kaolinite is formed.

The purest clays, consisting predominantly of kaolinite, are called kaolins. Ordinary clays differ from kaolins in their chemical and mineralogical composition, since in addition to kaolinite they contain quartz, mica, feldspars, calcite, magnesite, etc.

In general, according to their origin and composition, all clays are divided into sedimentaryformed as a result of the transfer to another place and deposition there of clayey and other products of the weathering crust, and residual, resulting from the weathering of various rocks on land, and in the sea as a result of changes in lavas, their ashes and tuffs.

Based on their origin, sedimentary clays are divided into:

. sea ​​clays,deposited on the seabed:

coastal-sea - formed in coastal zones (turbulence zones) of seas, open bays, and river deltas. They are often characterized by unsorted material. They quickly change into sandy and coarse-grained varieties. Replaced by sandy and carbonate deposits along strike.

lagoonal - formed in sea lagoons, semi-enclosed with a high concentration of salts or desalinated. In the first case, the clays are heterogeneous in granulometric composition, insufficiently sorted and occur together with gypsum or salts. Clays from desalinated lagoons are usually finely dispersed, thin-layered, and contain inclusions of calcite, siderite, iron sulfides, etc. Among these clays there are fire-resistant varieties.

shelf - formed at a depth of up to 200 m in the absence of currents. They are characterized by a uniform granulometric composition and large thickness (up to 100 m or more).

2. continental clays, formed on the mainland.

- colluvial - characterized by a mixed granulometric composition, its sharp variability and irregular layering (sometimes absent).

- lacustrine, with a uniform granulometric composition and finely dispersed. All clay minerals are present in such clays, but kaolinite and hydromicas, as well as minerals of hydrous oxides Fe and Al, predominate in clays of fresh lakes, and minerals of the montmorillonite group and carbonates predominate in clays of salt lakes. Lake clays include the best varieties of fire-resistant clays.

- proluvial, formed by temporary flows. Characterized by very poor sorting.

- river - developed in river terraces, especially in the floodplain. Usually poorly sorted. They quickly turn into sands and pebbles, most often non-stratified.

Residual clays- clays resulting from the weathering of various rocks on land, and in the sea as a result of changes in lavas, their ashes and tuffs. Down the section, residual clays gradually transform into parent rocks. The granulometric composition of residual clays is variable - from finely dispersed varieties in the upper part of the deposit to unevenly granular ones in the lower part. Residual clays formed from acidic massive rocks are not plastic or have little plasticity; Clays formed during the destruction of sedimentary clay rocks are more plastic.

Clays consist of various oxides, free and chemically bound water and organic impurities. Oxides include: alumina, silica, iron oxide, calcium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide and potassium oxide.

Alumina has the greatest influence on the properties of ceramic products and is the most important component of clay. The higher the alumina content, the higher the plasticity and fire resistance of the clay. Silica is the main (by quantity) oxide that forms clays - its quantity reaches 60-78%.

In addition to iron oxide, clays include iron oxide FeO, pyrite FeS2 and other modifications of iron. The color of ceramic products and the sintering temperature of the shard depend on the amount of iron and its modification. The densest shard is obtained when there is ferrous oxide in the clay.

The content of calcium oxide (in the form of calcium carbonates and sulfates) in some clays reaches 25%. These calcium compounds shorten the sintering period of clays, which worsens the firing conditions of ceramic products. The same effect on the firing of products is exerted by magnesium oxide, which is found in clays in the form of carbonate MgCO3 and dolomite MgCO3-CaCO3. Sulfur dioxide SO3 is found in clays in small quantities as impurities. However, if it is combined with magnesium or sodium, it can adversely affect the strength of products. Potassium oxide and sodium oxide can be considered useful impurities, which serve as fluxes that lower the firing temperature of products and give them greater strength. Oxides of various metals, such as manganese, titanium, etc., are contained in very small quantities and have little effect on the properties of clays. In general, the properties of clays are affected not only by the quantitative content of certain oxides, but also by their ratio.

Impurities have a great influence on the properties of clays. Thus, with an increased content of free silica, not bound with Al2O3 into clay minerals, the binding capacity of clays decreases, the porosity of fired products increases and their strength decreases.

The composition of clays also contains water, which is contained in clays both in the form of free and chemically bound, i.e., included in the composition of clay-forming minerals. The presence of certain minerals in clay makes it possible to judge the amount of chemically bound water and, therefore, the relationship to drying and firing. The content of organic substances found in clay in the form of plant residues and humic substances also determines the loss of clay during firing and, consequently, the shrinkage of products. In addition, an increased amount of organic matter reduces the fire resistance of clays.

7. What is thermosite, what are its properties and for what purposes is it used in construction

Materials and products from slag melts are a type of products obtained from molten rocks. Fire-liquid slags of the metallurgical industry are valuable raw materials for the production of various materials and products. The production of products from slag melts is also economically profitable, since their production does not require additional fuel costs, there is no need for special melting furnaces, and specific capital investments and the cost per unit of production are significantly reduced. However, for proper quality of manufactured products, slag melts need to be enriched with special additives, which somewhat complicates the production of products. Fire-liquid slags are used to produce products for floor coverings of industrial enterprises, facing tiles used in corrosive environments, tubings for fastening mine workings, lightweight materials - thermosite, slag wool, etc.

Termozitis a cellular material obtained as a result of swelling of molten slag during rapid cooling. The volumetric weight of thermosite ranges from 300 to 1100 kg/m3 depending on the size of the pieces and the degree of swelling. Crushed stone from thermosite is a good filler for producing lightweight thermosite concrete. By pouring molten slag into special molds, it is possible to obtain products of various profiles and configurations. To reduce stress and prevent the formation of cracks during the period of crystallization and subsequent cooling of products, steel reinforcing mesh is placed in the molds before pouring.

Thermozite is slag pumice. Slag pumice is an artificial porous material. Due to its universal physical, mechanical and thermal properties, slag pumice is used:

as a filler in lightweight concrete,

in thermal insulation, structural and high-strength fine-grained concrete;

as insulation for roofing, industrial and civil buildings, warm floors;

in mixtures for road pavements;

in the form of finely ground additives to cement and asphalt concrete;

in the production of mineral wool products.

Slag pumice is produced in two fractions: 0-5 mm and 5-20 mm, and is shipped to consumers in accordance with GOST 9757 with the following characteristics:

bulk density of the following grades is 600-1000;

strength P75-P150;

porosity - 40-45%;

grain shape coefficient 1.8-2.0;

stable structure against silicate decay;

frost resistance Mr3 15 and above.

Slag pumice belongs to the first class of building materials in accordance with GOST 30108-94 and can be used in construction without restrictions.

Thermozite as a substrate for growing indoor plants is not ideal, as it has the following disadvantages:

thermosite particles have sharp edges, which makes it unsafe to use,

characterized by high alkalinity (up to 43% CaO).

Both shortcomings can be eliminated. In the first case, it is recommended to add 10% quartz sand to the thermosite. Sand is introduced into the substrate before processing.

In the second case, like volcanic rocks, thermosite is subjected to pre-treatment in order to remove toxic substances (sulfur and lime compounds) from it.

For the first time in the late 1960s, thermosite began to be used for industrial purposes in such areas as various types of piles, sheet piles, anchor piles, Vertical Support Elements (VES), pipes, pipelines, boundaries of irradiation zones, etc.

The use of manufactured thermosite has become widely accepted in a number of locations in the continental United States as an alternative means of backfilling around utility poles, piles and anchor supports. The piles and VOEs are fixed into shafts drilled in the usual way, and then a pre-measured amount of thermosite is poured or injected into the shafts. Liquid thermosite immediately begins to react and expand up to 15 times the size of the original object and then hardens. Within ten minutes, the pile or VOE shrinks and can be released.


Future ceramics

What material was the first font made of by Johannes Gutenberg, the founder of European printing?

Material for a beginner sculptor

Sedimentary rock used for pottery, bricks, construction and sculpture

Plastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay minerals

Soil, sedimentary rock

Construction dough

Raw materials for pottery

Sedimentary, viscous rock made from tiny mineral particles when wet.

What material does a swallow use to build its nest?

What does the Greek word "keramos" from which pottery comes from mean?

It is from this that Allah created the camel and the date palm.

What is the mythical giant golem made of?

Potter's raw materials

From this natural material God made Adam

Pottery "plasticine"

Soil-plasticine

sedimentary rock

Potter's material

Fireproof and fired

A potter creates from it

What is the giant golem made of?

Modeling material

Soilplasticine

Primitive cement substitute

Raw Material for Adam

Mass on a potter's wheel

Plasticine base

Pot and brick mash

Kaolin, terracotta

Building material for Kazakh huts

Raw materials for ceramics

Breed suitable for potty training

. "plasticine" for the potter

Mineral for masks

From her God molded Adam

Raw materials for red brick

Potter's and sculptor's raw materials

Raw materials for sculpting Adam

Ceramics in embryo

What is in adobe besides straw?

. "plasticine" for the sculptor

Plastic sedimentary rock, the main material for ceramics

. "Plasticine" for the potter

. "Plasticine" for the sculptor

Pottery "plasticine"

F. earth or earthy substance, which with water makes up a soft, viscous and slippery dough, which dries in the air and takes on stony hardness and strength in the fire. The basis of clay is metal clay m. aluminum, aluminum or aluminum, in oxidized form alumina m. Living clay, among brickmakers and potters, in the form in which it is in layers, in the ground; fresh, filled with water and washed out, kneaded; sour, lying in a batch, ready for use. Fulling, fulling clay, white and thin, removing fat from wool. Zelenka clay, Moscow. painting greens, paint greens. Get by with coal and clay, talk about poverty. We dig the earth down to clay and eat the chaff. Man is not clay, and rain is not a club; it will not kill or wash away. Glinka wild field pigeon (is it distorted from clintukh?). Aluminous, earthy, earthy, related to alumina or composed of it. Clay, made of clay; meager. Simple pottery is called earthenware, and white earthenware and stone. Not made of clay, you won't get wet from the rain. Minin's beard, but his conscience is clay. There is a silver girl, look for a clay guy, a groom. Clay or clayey, containing clay; similar to clay, similar to it. Clay soil, in which up to half is clay; heavy, viscous; white clayey, ludyak, cold. Shale, layered, highly hardened clay, with other admixtures. Clayish, about the soil, clayey, to a lesser extent. Glinische Wed. Glinnitsa or clay pit a pit or mine where clay is taken; Glinishche Vlad. clay soil. Glinnik old. potter, potter, potter, potter. Clay, adobe, about a structure, made of earth, clay, sometimes with an admixture of straw. Clayed m. worker, felting clay. Clay mill the place where she is dumped. Clay miller, trampler, a worker who crushes clay, usually with his feet. Glinokop m. a worker digging clay. Clay mixer m. worker for mixing clay. Clay-mixing, related to the mixing of clay, for example. projectile Glinnik or glinchak m. glinishche, glinnik, purely clay soil. Plant of the same soil Lygeum. He slobbers on his fingers, clays his pipes, sculpts them, and parasites. Clay-straw roofs are covered with tufts of straw dipped in liquid clay, smeared smooth on top, and after drying they are sometimes tarred, especially with mountain tar, and sprinkled with sand.

What is the giant golem made of?

What is the mythical giant golem made of?

What material does a swallow use to build its nest?

Straw partner in adobe

Terracotta

What is in adobe besides straw?

What does the Greek word "keramos" mean, from which pottery is derived?

Raw materials for sculpting Adam

All materials for stoves and fireplaces are divided into 2 groups: natural and artificial. Let's look at each of them, their features, properties and scope of application:

Natural materials

Sand– this natural material for the construction of stoves and fireplaces comes in several types: sea sand, river and mountain sand (ravine). However, only mountain sand is used to build hearths, which is obtained by weathering the rock. The surface of its grains is rough and has sharp edges, which is very “advantageous” in construction. This promotes strong adhesion to binders, which makes the solutions tenacious, reliable and durable.

Do not use sea or river sand! They have round grains and therefore do not adhere well to solutions!

Also, the use of fine sand is unacceptable; its grains should be no more than 2 millimeters!!!

Clay is a sedimentary rock that consists of very small mineral particles, often plate-shaped. 0.005mm - size. This lamellar structure of clay materials forms a large total particle surface capable of absorbing and retaining up to 30 percent of water. In this state, the clay swells and becomes viscous-plastic. When the clay particles dry out, they move closer together and are firmly held by the force of surface tension of the thin films of water remaining between them. As a result, the clay hardens. That is, when moistened, clay swells and becomes plastic. And when dried, it turns into a stone-like durable material, with some decrease in volume (shrinkage).

Clay can be either fatty (with sand impurities up to 3%) or lean (with sand impurities up to 35%). The color of this material for stoves and fireplaces depends on its mineral composition, so clay comes in red tones, gray-dark, gray-light, brown, and even blue tones.

Clay is used mainly for preparing masonry mortars for the construction of various hearths. It is harvested on the banks of lakes, rivers, and from open quarries. It is here, under the influence of snow, rain, frost, in the open air, that clay lends itself to a complete technological, natural process of producing raw materials for masonry mortar mixtures. If it is not possible to procure this raw material, then raw brick produced at brick factories is used. The clay that has just been removed from a closed quarry is not suitable for masonry mortar. Since it must undergo either natural processing (under the influence of nature) or artificial processing (by machine).

This processing is not possible manually! The solutions and masonry will be of poor quality!

Artificial materials

Ceramic materials(terracotta) are stone materials that are made from minerals through formation and subsequent firing at high temperatures.

Solid bricks ceramic - come in white, red and yellow. The shape of a rectangular parallelepiped with straight edges, with corners, with smooth edges, size 250x120x65mm. The mass of 1 solid brick is 3.7 – 3.9 kg. Thermal conductivity – 0.71-0.82 W/mK. Density – 1600-1900 kg/m3. The strength of bricks is characterized by the limits of compressive and bending strength. Strength is indicated by brands - 300, 250, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 75. Frost resistance - 50, 35, 25, 15.

When producing bricks, proper firing of the material is very important. If the brick is not properly cured, it will not be strong enough, not frost-resistant and not water-resistant. When underburned, the brick has a scarlet color. If it is over-compressed, its density and thermal conductivity will be very high. As a rule, such bricks have distorted shapes.

For laying hearths, bricks of grades 150, 125 and 100 are used.

Shaped bricks ceramic - such finishing materials for fireplaces and stoves are used for decorative finishing of fireplaces and other hearths. They come in red, white and yellow. Shaped ceramic bricks are produced by plastic molding of different geometric shapes.

Glazed bricks ceramic - made by applying a glass-like material, i.e. glaze onto raw brick and further firing in a kiln. They have different colors - green, brown, blue, matte, white... They are used for masonry and for lining stoves, barbecues, fireplaces or barbecues.

Fire brick(fireclay) – intended for lining fireboxes of fireplace stoves + for their decorative finishes. It is also allowed for, especially sauna heaters. Its size is 240*60*115mm. The color is either white or yellow. Fire resistance – 1730 degrees. Strength is 11-12.6 MPa, its density is 1905-2000 kg/m3. Thermal conductivity – 0.85-0.9 W/mK.

Ceramovermiculite– used for the construction of heat-protective screens and fire-prevention cuts. Its density is 350–1050 kg/m3, thermal conductivity is 0.16–0.37 W/mK, compressive strength is 0.50–2.4 MPa.

Silicon vermiculite slabs fire-resistant – these are fire-resistant materials for stoves and fireplaces, which are used in rooms and houses with a high fire hazard. That is, in bathhouses, in fire-prevention ceiling devices, and for thermal insulation of rooms in bathhouses. In addition, silicon-vermiculite slabs are used to create the interiors of baths and fireplaces, and all thanks to their beautiful yellow-golden texture. The density of this material is 300-700 kg/m3. Tensile strength in compression. – 0.6-4 MPa. Thermal conductivity – 0.08-0.13 W/mK.

Study of plastic materials. DIY toy.

Completed:

student of 1st "B" class

Sidorov Andrey

Checked:

primary school teacher

Ivshina I.V.

Perm, 2016

Introduction. 3

1. Theoretical part. 5

1.1. The benefits of modeling. 5

1.2. Materials for modeling. Properties and use. 7

2. Research part. 9

2.1. Conducting a sociological survey. 9

2.2. Freezing plasticine. 9

2.3. Selection of material for modeling. 9

2.4. Using polymer clay... 11

2.5. Observation. eleven

Conclusions.. 12

List of used literature. 13

Appendix 1. Questionnaire. 14

Appendix 2. Survey results (diagrams) 15

Appendix 3. Illustration of the process of creating a toy. 16

Appendix 4. Comparison of toys made from different materials. 17

Appendix 5. Examples of works made from natural clay. 18


Introduction.

All children love to play and every child has favorite toys. The older a child gets, the more he wants not only to play with toys, but also to create and create something new himself. Therefore, older children are interested in various creative areas: drawing, embroidery, carving wood, modeling and others. Creativity develops imagination, thinking, and various skills.

Modeling is one of the areas of creativity that is known to all children. You can mold anything, even a new toy. Many children sculpted from plasticine in kindergarten and know what an interesting process it is. Plasticine is very flexible and easy to sculpt, but it leaves marks on furniture and loses its shape when pressed. Therefore, figures molded from plasticine are not suitable for games. Plasticine toys quickly become unusable.

Current The question becomes: Is it possible to learn how to create new toys with your own hands by doing modeling? In this work we will look at different modeling options to obtain toys suitable for play.

Target This work will find out whether the results of sculpting can be used for active games, that is, what material is best to sculpt from and how to make the sculpted figurine strong and durable. Additionally, you need to find out how useful and safe such creativity is.



Research hypothesis : Molded figures may be suitable for games if:

1. Freeze plasticine figures;

2. Use a material that hardens for sculpting.

To achieve this goal, we put forward the following tasks:

In the theoretical part:

1. Define sculpting and describe its benefits.

2. List and describe the different materials that can be used for sculpting and their basic properties.

In the research part:

3. Conduct a sociological survey of 1st grade students, analyze the survey results and find out the relevance of the chosen topic.

4. Conduct an experiment confirming the first hypothesis (freezing plasticine).

5. Conduct a comparative analysis of the materials described in the theoretical part and select the most suitable material for creating toys.

6. Conduct an experiment on creating a toy from the selected material at home. Confirm the second hypothesis (about the choice of material).

7. Observe what happens to the molded toys over time.

8. Analyze the research results and draw conclusions

9. Present the research results and create a presentation.

10. Tell your classmates about your research and offer the most interesting option for creating toys with your own hands.

Research methods, used in the work:

· Collection of material;

· Study of literature;

· Construction of diagrams;

· Experiment;

· Observation and experiments;

· Analysis.


Theoretical part

The benefits of modeling.

Modeling- giving shape to plastic material (plasticine, clay, plastic, etc.) using hands and auxiliary tools - stacks, etc.

The benefits of modeling for mental development:

When a child kneads plasticine (or other material) in his hands, creates parts of different shapes from it, attaches them to each other, flattens them, stretches them, fine motor skills develop. It has been scientifically proven that it directly affects the development of a child’s speech, coordination of movements, memory and logical thinking.

When a child concentrates on what he is doing, he learns patience and perseverance.

When he creates new shapes from standard pieces of plasticine or mixes colors, imaginative, abstract and logical thinking develops, and creative abilities appear.

When a child rolls a ball or sausage with both hands, both hemispheres of the brain work, interhemispheric connections are strengthened, which, in turn, contributes to the development of attention and self-regulation.

Modeling develops memory, the ability to compare facts and images, logical thinking, patience, the ability to gather, concentrate, finish what you started and evaluate the result by comparing it with the original.

When a child sculpts what he himself came up with, imagination, creativity and imaginative thinking develop.

For health and emotional well-being

Modeling classes have a beneficial effect on the nervous system, mental and emotional state of the child.

Regular quiet games help normalize sleep and reduce excessive activity, reduce excitability and irritability.

If necessary, modeling helps children non-verbally express existing internal conflicts and contradictions.

Modeling allows you to “objectify” fear and overcome it through physical interaction - break, crumple a figurine or change it to make something good.

Modeling is associated with a whole range of feelings: from tactile sensations, perception of color and smell to complex internal states - excitement, interest, joy that everything works out, and disappointment if expectations do not coincide with the result.

Modeling helps a child express his emotions (including negative ones) in a socially acceptable manner, cope with pain, anger, anger, and anxiety.

The works that a child creates will help adults understand his spiritual state and assess the presence of emotional or personal problems.

By creating another figure or picture from plasticine, a child can relax, relieve tension, calm down and get rid of a bad mood.

For little dreamers, modeling becomes a kind of bridge from the world of their own fantasies to real life. It helps to accept the existing world and get used to its imperfections.

Psychologists actively use modeling as one of the areas of art therapy, which addresses the child’s internal hidden self-healing resources.

The experience of creating masterpieces from ordinary materials convinces the child of its importance and necessity, teaches him to look at things from a different angle and find original solutions even in the most hopeless situations.

For personal development

Modeling is a simple and effective way to reveal hidden abilities and develop a child’s natural skills, demonstrating to him his own uniqueness and creativity.

Modeling introduces children to the concepts of shape and color.

Working with material, which can be given any shape if desired, and then, if necessary, change this shape to a new one, develops in the child self-confidence, responsibility and curiosity. He experiments, forgetting that something may not work out.

The child learns new things and tries to consciously use his skills to achieve the desired result.

In addition to basic motor skills, sculpting develops determination, perseverance and accuracy.

Working on three-dimensional images, children study the characteristic features of objects, clarify details, and comprehend the basic qualities of objects. They develop knowledge about the properties and laws of the surrounding world, and train visual perception.

Modeling plays a significant role in the aesthetic education of a child and the development of his sense of beauty.

Materials for modeling. Properties and use.

You can sculpt from various materials: plasticine, natural clay, polymer clay, adhesive mixtures (cold porcelain), salt dough. Next, we will consider the described materials and describe their properties and features.

Natural clay- fine-grained sedimentary rock, dust-like when dry, plastic when moistened. Properties of clay: plasticity, fire resistance, sinterability, water impermeability. Natural clay is reddish-brown in color and is mined from the surface of the Earth.

Thanks to the combination of such properties as plasticity and sinterability, clay began to be used in ancient times, when there was no paper and papyrus, and is still used today.

Clay was used as one of the first materials for books. Around 3500 BC, people wrote on flat clay tablets called tuppums. Inscriptions and drawings were applied to the moistened tablets with special sticks, and then the tablets were dried in the sun or burned in a fire. Ready-made tablets of the same content were placed in a certain order in a wooden box - a clay book was obtained. Until now, archaeologists have found ancient writings preserved on clay tablets. That is, baked clay can be stored for several thousand years. (see Appendix 5).

Clay has always been an accessible and cheap material, so pottery has always been a popular craft. And now every day we eat from ceramic plates, the basis of which is also clay. Bricks, pipes, tiles, etc. are made from clay. Clay is the most plastic natural mineral on Earth.

Plasticine- a modeling material created at the end of the 19th century. Previously, it was made from purified and crushed clay powder with the addition of wax, animal fats and other substances that prevented the clay from drying and hardening. Currently, high molecular weight polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, rubbers and other high-tech materials are also used in the production of plasticine. Painted in various colors. Serves for making small figures and models, as well as for sketches of sculptural works. There are hard and soft plasticine. But any type has high plasticity, and such disadvantages as:

· Fading in light;

· Dust sticking;

· Blurring in the heat;

· Contamination of hands due to working with plasticine;

· Some types of plasticine burn.

Cold porcelain

Cold porcelain is based on any starch and wood glue. Starch and glue are mixed, acrylic paint is added to give the mixture the desired color, and the mixture is kneaded for a long time. After some time, the mixture becomes plastic and can be sculpted from it. This mixture hardens in air. The mixture can only be stored in a closed bag that does not allow air to enter.

Cold porcelain does not need to be baked and frozen porcelain no longer melts or becomes deformed. But making the mixture requires quite a lot of time and experience; it is very difficult for a child to make the mixture on his own. Sometimes the mixture can be very sticky to your hands. The mixture is also difficult to store and new mixtures must be prepared before each sculpting.

Salty dough. prepared from flour, salt and water, colored with food coloring or paints. It is absolutely safe for children, but even after baking it can become deformed. The dough cannot be stored; before each modeling, new dough must be kneaded. Unlike modern plasticine, the colors of puff pastry are not so bright and varied.

Polymer modeling clay or plastic- a plastic material for sculpting small products (jewelry, sculptures, dolls, etc.) and modeling, hardening when heated to a temperature of 100-130°C. Sometimes polymer clay is called self-hardening masses that do not need to be baked. Polymer clay does not contain natural clay; the base is polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

Various manufacturers offer polymer clay not only in various bright colors, but also with the addition of glitter, metallic shimmer, etc.

During modeling, polymer clay is absolutely safe; all sold clay undergoes special tests. But when baking, it is important to observe the temperature regime. Using an oven or electric oven is not safe for children, so baking should only be done in the presence of adults. But baking happens very quickly (no more than 15 minutes). After complete cooling, the figurine becomes hard and durable.


Research part